LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Mrs.  SARAH  P.  WALSWORTH. 

Received  October,  1894. 
Class  Afo. 


FIRST  BOOK 


OK 


ANATOMY, 
PHYSIOLOGY,  AND    HYGIENE, 

Foa 

GRAMMAR  SCHOOLS  AND  FAMILIES. 


WITH  EIGHTY-THREE   ENGRAVINGS. 


BY   CALVIN  CUTTER,   M.  1). 

AUTHOR    OF    "  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND     HYGIENE,    FOB      COLLEGES. 
ACADEMIES,   AND    FAMILIES;"    "SECOND  BOOK  ON  ANATOMY,  PHYSI- 
OLOGY   AND  HYGIENE,  FOR  ACADEMIES,  SCHOOLS,  AND   FAMILIES;" 
"   VJfATOMICAL     OUTLINE     PLATES     FOK     SCHOOLS,"    &C. 


REVISED    STEREOTYPE    EDITION. 


NEW    YORK: 
CLARK,    AUSTIN,   MAYNARD   &   CO 

CINCINNATI:— W.  B.  SMITH  <fe  CO. 

ST.  LOUIS,  MO.:— KEITH  &  WOODS. 

1862. 


BIOLOGY 
LIBRARY 


5P7JK>f 

Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1852,  by 

CALVIN    CUTTER.   M.D.. 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of  Massachusetts 


A.  ALVORD,  PKIWTB*, 


PREFACE 


IN  presenting  this  work  to  the  public,  the  author 
would  indulge  in  a  few  prefatory  suggestions. 

Education,  to  be  complete,  must  be  not  only  moral 
and  intellectual,  but  physical.  As  the  culture  of  the 
mind  and  of  the  affections  is  the  subject  of  systematic 
attention  in  early  life,  should  not  the  education  of  the 
physical  powers  be  commenced  as  early  ?  It  will 
demand  no  more  maturity  and  thought  to  understand 
me  reasons  for  adequate  clothing,  bathing,  the  neces- 
sity of  an  erect  position  in  standing  and  sitting,  regu- 
larity in  taking  food,  the  supply  of  pure  air  to  the 
lungs,  &c..  than  to  comprehend  geographical  details 
or  moral  truths.  Is  not  a  knowledge  of  the  laws  upon 
which  health  depends,  as  important  to  the  develop- 
ment of  a  vigorous  physical  constitution,  as  moral 
instruction  is  to  the  formation  of  correct  moral  prin- 
ciples ?  Can  any  reason  be  given  why  both  should 
not  be  taught  in  the  school-room? 

A  child  should  be  taught  to  call  each  organ  by  its 
correct  name.  No  more  effort  is  required  to  learn  the 
meaning  of  a  proper,  than  an  improper  term.  For 
example :  a  child  will  pronounce  the  word  as  readily, 
and  obtain  as  correct  an  idea,  if  you  say  lungs,  as 
if  you  used  the  word  lights. 

In  preparing  this  work,  it  has  not  been  deemed 
necessary  to  use  low,  vulgar  terms,  for  the  purpose  of 
being  understood  ;  but  such  words  have  been  selected 


VI  PREFACE. 

as  good  usage  sanctions.  Should  the  pupil  meet  with 
any  word  he  does  not  understand,  let  him  consult  his 
dictionary,  as  he  should  do  in  perusing  works  upon 
history,  when  a  similar  difficulty  occurs. 

To  insure  a  correct  pronunciation  of  the  technical 
words  interspersed  with  the  text,  they  have  been 
divided  into  syllables,  and  the  accented  syllables  des- 
ignated. An  ample  Glossary  of  technical  terms  has 
also  been  appended  to  the  work,  to  which  reference 
should  be  made. 

To  the  teacher  we  would  suggest  the  propriety  of 
c,alling  on  a  pupil  of  the  class,  to  describe  the  anatomy 
of  an  organ  from  an  anatomical  outline  plate  ;  after- 
wards call  upon  another  to  give  the  physiology  of 
the  part,  while  a  third  may  state  the  hygiene ;  after 
which,  the  questions  at  the  bottom  of  the  page  may 
be  asked  promiscuously,  and  thus  the  detailed  knowl- 
edge which  each  pupil  possesses  of  the  subject  will 
be  tested. 

With  advanced  pupils,  it  is  recommended  that  the 
subject  be  examined  in  the  form  of  topics.  The  ques- 
tions in  Italics  are  designed  for  this  method  of  reci- 
tation. 

For  a  more  full  and  complete  explanation  of  Anato- 
my, Physiology,  and  Hygiene,  the  pupil  is  referred  to 
the  Author's  treatise,  of  450  pages,  for  Colleges,  Acade- 
mies, and  Families,  or  to  his  second  book,  of  300 
pages,  for  Academies,  Schools,  and  Families. 

To  the  instructors  of  youth,  and  the  patrons  of 
education,  this  work  is  respectfully  submitted. 

WARRE.X,  Mass.,  1852. 


CONTENTS 


Chapter.  p«  fa, 

1.  GENERAL  REMARKS, y 

2.  ANATOMY  OF  THE  BONES, 11 

3.  ANATOMY  or  THE  BONES,  CONTINUED, 16 

4.  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  BONES, 21 

5.  HYGIENE  QF  THE  BONES, 24 

6.  ANATOMY  OF  THE  MCSCLES, .27 

7.  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  MUSCLES, 30 

8.  HYGIENE  OF  THE  MUSCLES, .36 

9.  ANATOMY  OF  THE  TEETH, 43 

10.  ANATOMY  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS, 47 

11.  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS, 53 

12.  HYGIENE  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS, 56 

13.  ANATOMY  OF  THE  CIRCULATORY  ORGANS, 62 

14.  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  CIRCULATORY  ORGANS, 67 

15.  HYGIENE  OF  THE  CIRCULATORY  ORGANS, 70 

16.  ABSORPTION, 76 

17.  SECRETION, 82 

18.  NUTRITION, 86 

19.  ANATOMY  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  ORGANS, b-J 

20.  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  ORGANS, 9J 

21.  HYGIENE  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  ORGANS, 98 


VU1  CONTENTS. 

Chaptei  Page 

22.  ANIMAL  HEAT, 106 

23.  ANATOMY  OF  THE  VOCAL  ORGANS, 110 

24.  ANATOMY  OF  THE  SKIN, 115 

25.  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  SKIN, 119 

26.  HYGIENE  OF  THE  SKIN, 122 

27.  ANATOMY  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM, 127 

28.  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM, 131 

29.  HYGIENE  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM, 134 

30.  SENSE  OF  TOUCH, 138 

SENSE  OF  TASTE, 139 

SENSE  OF  SMELL, 141 

81.  ANATOMY  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  VISION, 143 

32.  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  VISION, 149 

33.  ANATOMY  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  HEARING, 152 

34.  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  HEARING, 155 

35.  MEANS  OF  PRESERVING  THE  HEALTH, 158 

36.  DIRECTIONS  FOR  NURSES, 164 


APPENDIX, 170 

GLOSSARY, 176 

INDEX, 181 


FIRST   BOOK 


ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND 
HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER   I. 

GENERAL    REMARKS. 

1.  ANATOMY  is  a  description  of  the  organs,  or  parts  of  a 
body. 

Examples.  1st.  Flowers  have  roots,  stems,  and  blossoms. 
These  are  their  organs.  2d.  The  teeth,  stomach,  and  heart, 
are  Some  of  the  organs  of  the  human  body.* 

2.  PHYSIOLOGY  is  a  description  of  the  function,  or  use  of  an 
organ. 

Examples.  1st.  The  roots  of  flowers  suck  up  water,  to 
make  them  grow.  This  is  their  function.  2d.  The  stomach, 
in  man,  is  one  of  the  organs  that  prepare  the  food  for  his 
growth.  This  is  its  function. 

3.  Anatomy  and    Physiology  are    divided  into   two  kinds, 
namely,  Animal  and  Vegetable. 


*  Where  examples  are  given,  let  the  pupil  mention  other  analo  - 
gous  ones. 

1.  What  is  anatomy  ?    Give  examples.    2.  What  is  physiology  ?    Give 
examples.     3.  How  many  kinds  of  anatomy  and  physiology  are  there  ? 


10  GENERAL    REMARKS. 

4.  Animal  Anatomy  and  Physiology  are  again  divided  into 
Human  and  Comparative. 

5.  Human  Anatomy  and  Physiology  describe  the  structure 
and  functions  of  the  organs  of  man. 

6.  Comparative  Anatomy  and  Physiology  describe  the  struc- 
ture and  functions  of  the  organs  of  other  animals  than  man. 

Examples.     As  the  horse,  the  monkey,  and  the  whale. 

7.  Vegetable  Anatomy  and  Physiology  describe  the  struc- 
ture and  functions  of  different  parts  of  trees,  shrubs,  plants,  and 
flowers. 

8.  HYGIENE  is  the  art  of  preserving  health,  or  that  depart- 
ment of  medicine  which  treats  of  the  preservation  of  health. 

9.  All  bodies  in  nature  are  divided  into   Organic  and  In- 
organic.    Organic  bodies  include  animals  and  plants.     Inor- 
ganic bodies  include  earths,  metals,  and  other  minerals. 

10.  All  organized  bodies  have  a  limited  period  of  life,  and 
this  period  varies  with  every  species.     The  duration  of  some 
plants  is  limited  to  a  single  summer,  as  many  garden  flowers  ; 
while  some  trees,  as  the  olive,  live  many  hundred  years.    Some 
animals  live  but  a  short  time,  while  the  elephant  lives  more 
than  a  century. 

11.  The  life  of  man  is  shortened  by  disease  ;  but  disease  is 
under  the  control  of  fixed  laws  —  laws  which  we  are  capable 
of  understanding  and  obeying.     How  important,  then,  is  the 
study  of  physiology  and  hygiene  !     For  how  can  we  expect  to 
obey  laws  which  we  do  not  understand  ? 

4.  How  are  animal  anatomy  and  physiology  divided  ?  5.  What  do 
numan  anatomy  and  physiology  describe  ?  6.  What  do  comparative  anat- 
omy and  physiology  describe  ?  7.  What  do  vegetable  anatomy  and  physi- 
ology describe  ?  8.  What  is  hygiene  ?  9.  How  are  all  bodies  in  nature 
divided  ?  What  bodies  are  called  organic  ?  What  bodies  are  called  in- 
organic ?  10.  Have  all  animals  and  plants  a  limited  period  of  life  ?  Does 
this  period  vary  witrf  different  species  of  animals  -and  plants  ?  Give  some 
examples.  11.  How  is  life  usually  shortened  ?  Why  is  the  studv  of  physi- 
ology and  hygiene  important  to  every  person  ? 


ANATOMY    OF    THE    BONES.  It 

CHAPTER   II. 

THE    BONES. 

12.  THE  bones  are  firm  and  hard,  and  of  a  dull  white  color. 
In  all  the  higher  orders  of  animals,  among  which  is  man,  they 
are  in"  the  interior  of  the  body,  while  in  lobsters,  crabs,  &c., 
they  are  on  the  outside,  forming  a  case,  which  protects  the 
movable  parts  from  injury. 

ANATOMY  OF  THE  BONES. 

13.  There  are  two  hundred  and  eight  *  bones  in  the  human 
body,  beside  the  teeth.     t 

14.  These,  for  convenience,  are   divided  into  four   parts: 
1st.   The  bones  of  thej&grf.     2d.   The  bones  of  the  Trunk. 
3d.   The  bones  of  the  Upper  Extremities.     4th.   The  bones  of 
the  Lower  Extremities. 

15.  The  bones  of  the  HEAD  are  divided  into  those  of  the 
Skull,  Ear,  and  Face. 

16.  The  SKULL  is  formed  of  eight  bones.     These  are  joined 
together  by  ragged  edges,  called  sutures.     (Fig.  2.) 

Observation.     The   sutures   stop,   in   a   measure,   the  jars 
caused  by  external  blows.     Children  should  never  strike  each 


*  Some  anatomists  reckon  more  than  this  number,  others  less,  for 
the  reason  that,  at  different  periods  of  life,  the  number  of  pieces  of 
which  one  bone  is  formed,  varies.  Example.  The  breast-bone,  in 
infancy,  has  eight  pieces ;  in  youth,  three ;  in  old  age,  but  one. 

12.  Describe  the  bones.  13.  How  many  bones  in  the  human  body  ? 
14.  How  are  they  divided  ?  Name  them.  15  — 18.  Give  the  anatomy  of  the 
bones  of  the  head.  15.  How  are  the  bones  of  the  head  divided  ?  16.  How 
many  bones  in  the  skull  ?  How  are  the  bones  of  the  skull  joined  together  ? 


12  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,   AND   HYGlLNi.. 

other  upon  the  head,  because  the  bones  of  the  skull  in    hem 
are  softer  than  in  adults. 

17.  In  each  EAR  are  four  small  bones.     They  aid  in  hearing. 

18.  In  the   FACE  are  fourteen  bones.      They   support   the 
softer  parts  outside  of  them. 

19.  The  TRUNK  has  fifty-four   bones  —  twenty-four   Ribs; 
twenty-four  bones  in  the  Spi'nal  Col'umn,  (back-bone ;)  four 
in  the   Pelvis;   the  Ster'num,  (breast-bone;)  and  one  at  the 
root  of  the  tongue. 

20.  All  the  RIBS  are  joined  to  the  spinal  column.    "There 
are  twelve  on  each  side. 

Fig.  2. 


Fig.  2.    The  bones  of  the  upper  part  of  the  skull.    1, 1, 2,  3,  3,  The  sutures  that  join 
fiie  bones. 

21.   The  seven  upper  ribs  are  united  in  front  to  the  sternum, 
oy    a   yielding   substance   called   car'ti-lage?  (gristle.)     The 

*  See  paragraph  46. 


17.  What  is  the  use  ol  sutures  ?  How  many  bones  in  each  ear  ?  "What 
is  their  use  ?  18.  How  many  bones  in  the  face  ?  19  —  29.  Give  the  anato- 
my of  the  bones  of  the  trunk.  19.  How  many  bones  in  the  trunk  ?  Name 
them.  20.  To  what  are  all  the  ribs  joined  ?  How  many  on  each  side  ? 
What  does  fig.  2  represent?  21.  How  are  the  first  seven  ribs  united  in 
front? 


ANATOMY    OF    THE    BONES  13 

remaining  five  are  not  attached,  directly,  to  the  sternum. 
Three  are  joined  to  each  other  by  cartilage ;  two  are  not  con 
fined  ;  hence  they  are  called  "  floating  ribs." 

22.  The  cavity  formed  by  the  sternum,  ribs,  and  spinal 
column,  is  called  the  Chest.     It  contains  the  heart,  lungs,  and 
large  blood-vessels. 

23.  The  shape  of  the  chest  is  conical,  or  like  a  sugai-!oaf. 

Fig.  3. 


Fig.  3  The  form  of  the  chest.  1,  2,  3,  The  sternum,  (breast-bone.)  4,  5,  The 
epinal  column,  (bacl:-bone.)  6,  7,  8,  9,  The  first  rib.  10,  The  seventh  rib.  11,  The 
cartilage  of  the  third  rib.  12,  The  floating  ribs. 

Observation.  The  lower  part  of  the  chest  is  broader  and 
fuller  than  the  upper  part,  when  it  is  not  made  smaller  by  tight 
clothing. 

The  next  three  ?    What  are  the  last  two  called  ?    Why  ?    Describe  fig.  3. 

22.  How  is  the  chest  formed  ?  What  does  it  contain  ?  23.  What  is  the 
shape  of  the  chest  ?  How  does  the  lower  part  of  the  chest  compare  ic 
size  with  the  upper  ? 


14  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY,   AND    HYGIENE. 

24.  The    SPINAL*    COLUMN   is    composed   of   twenty-four 
pieces  of  bone.     Each  piece  is  called  a  vert'e-bra. 

25.  Between  the  pieces,  or  vertebrae,  is  a  thick  piece  of  car- 
tilage, which  is  elastic,  or  springs  like  India-rubber.     This  not 
only  unites  the  vertebras,  but  permits  them  to  move  in  different 
ways. 

26.  There  is  an  opening  in  each  vertebra;     By  a  union  or 
these  openings,  a  canal  is  formed  the  whole  length  of  the  spinal 
column,  in  which  the  spinal  cord  (pith  of  the  back-bone)  is 
placed. 

Fig.  4.  Fig.  5. 


3 

Fig.  4.  The  form  of  a  vertebra  of  the  neck.  1,  The  main  portion  of  the  bone 
2,  The  spinal  ranal,  in  which  the  spinal  cord  is  placed.  4,  5,  7,  8,  Points,  or  projec- 
tions of  the  vertebra. 

Fig.  5.  1,  The  cartilage -that  connects  the  vertebra.  3,  4,  5,  6,  Points,  or  pro- 
jections of  the  vertebra.  7,  The  spinal  canal. 

Observation.  A  good  idea  of  the  structure  of  the  vertebrae 
maybe  obtained,  by  examining  the  spinal  column  of  a  domestic 
animal,  as  the  dog,  cat,  or  pig. 


*  From  the  Latin  spi'na,  a  thorn  ;  so  called  from  the  points  of  the 
vertebrae  that  are  felt  beneath  the  skin. 

24.  How  many  pieces  of  bone  in  the  spinal  column  ?  What  is  each 
piece  called  ?  25.  "What  is  placed  between  the  vertebrae  ?  Give  its  use. 
26.  How  is  the  spinal  canal  formed,  and  what  does  it  contain  ?  Describe 
fig.  4.  Describe  fig.  5.  How  may  an  idea  of  the  structure  of  the  verte 
brae  be  obtained  ? 


ANATOMY    OF    THE    BONES.  15 

27.  The  spinal  column  is  a  very  curious  and  perfect  piece 
of  mechanical  art.     By  its  structure,  great  strength  and  suf- 
ficient movement  or  flexibility  are  combined.      The  vertebrae 
are  so  firmly  joined  together,  that  dislocation  of  them,  without 
fracture,  is  very  rare. 

28.  The  PELVIS  is  composed  of  four  bones.     They  are  so 
arranged  as  to  form  a  bony  basin.     The  spinal  column  rests 
on   these   bones,  and  they  also  serve  to  support   the    lower 
extremities. 

Fig.  6. 


Fig.  6.  1,1,  The  hip-bones.  2,  The  sacrum,  upon  which  the  spinal  column 
rests.  3,  The  extremity  of  the  spinal  column,  named  the  coc'cyz.  4,  4,  The  cavities 
for  the  head  of  the  thigh  bone. 

29.  In  the  sides  of  jhese  bones  is  a  deep,  round  cavity, 
called  a-ce-tab'u-lum,  in  which  the  head  of  the  thigh-bone  is 
placed. 

27.  "What  is  said  of  the  structure  of  the  spinal  column  ?  28.  Of  how  many 
bones  is  the  pelvis  composed  ?  What  is  their  use  ?  Describe  fig.  6. 
29.  What  is  found  in  the  sides  of  these  bones  ? 


]()  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

CHAPTER    III. 

ANATOMY    OF   THE    BONES,    CONTINUED. 

30.  THE  UPPER   EXTREMITIES  contain   sixty-four    bones  — 
the  Scap'u-la,  (shoulder-blade ;)  the   Clav'i-cle,  (collar-bone ;) 
and  the  bones  of  the  Arm,  Fore-arm,   Wrist,  and  Hand. 

31.  The  SCAPULA  is  a  broad,  irregular  bone,  situated  upon 
the  upper  and  back  part  of  the  chest. 

32.  The  CLAVICLE  is  a  thin  bone  at  the  base  of  the  neck. 
It  is  joined  at  one  extremity  to  the  sternum,  at  the  other  to 
the  scapula. 

Observation.  The  use  of  the  clavicle  is  to  keep  the  arms 
from  sliding  toward  the  breast.  Children  should  frequently 
throw  their  arms  backward,  as  this  exercise  would  tend  to 
increase  the  length  of  this  bone,  and  also  to  enlarge  the  chest. 

33.  The  ARM  is   formed   of  a  single  bone,  called  the  hu'- 
mer-us. 

34.  The  FORE-ARM  is  formed  of  two  bones  —  the  ul'na,  on 
the  inner  side,  and  the  ra'di-us,  on  the  outside,  (the  side  on 
which  the  thumb  is  placed.)     By  a  beautiful  arrangement  of 
these  bones,  the  hand  is  made  to  rotate,  or  turn,  permitting  its 
complicated  and  varied  movements. 

35.  The  WRIST  is  formed  of  eight  irregular  bones.     They 
move  but  little  upon  each  other. 

36.  The  HAND  consists  of  nineteen  bones —  five  in  the  palm, 
and  fourteen  bones  in  the  fingers  and  thumb. 

30 — 37.  Give  the  anatomy  of  the  bones  of  the  upper  extremities.  30.  Name 
the  bones  of  the  upper  extremities.  31.  Describe  the  scapula.  32.  Where 
is  the  clavicle  situated  ?  What  is  the  use  of  the  clavicle  ?  33.  How  is 
the  arm  formed  ?  34.  The  fore-arm  ?  35.  How  many  bones  in  the  wrist ; 
36.  How  many  bones  in  the  hand  ? 


ANATOMY    OF   THE    BONES.  17 

37.  Each  finger  is  formed  of  three  bones  of  different  lengths , 
the  thumb  has  but  two.     Proofs  of  a  designing  Creator  are 
nowhere    more   manifest   than   in   the   simple   but   wonderful 
structure  and  adaptation  of  the  human  hand. 

38.  The   LOWER   EXTREMITIES    contain    sixty   bones  —  the 
Ftfrnur,  (thigh-bone;)  the  Pa~tel'la,  (knee-pan;)  the  Tib'i-a, 
(shin-bone;)  the  FiVu~la,  (small  bone  of  the  leg;)    and  the 
bones  of  the  Foot. 

39    The  FEMUR  is  the  longest  bone  of  the  body.     It  sup- 
ports the  weight  of  the  head,  trunk,  and  upper  extremities. 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  8. 


Fig.  7.  u,  The  ulna.  R,  The  radius,  s,  L,  C,  P,  U,  M,  T,  T,  The  eight  bones  o( 
the  wrist.  1,  1,  1,  1,  1,  The  five  bones  of  the  palm  of  the  hand. 

Fig.  8.  10,  10,  10,  The  bones  of  the  palm  of  the  hand.  11,  12,  13,  The  bones  of 
the  fingers.  14,  15,  The  bones  of  the  thumb. 

40.  The  TIBIA  and  the  FIBULA  are  situated  between  the 
knee  and  ankle. 


37  What  is  said  of  the  bones  of  the  fingers  and  thumb  ?  38 — 41.  Give 
the  anatomy  of  the  bones  of  the  lower  extremities.  38.  Name  the 
bones  of  the  lower  extremities.  39.  What  is  said  of  the  femur? 
Describe  fig.  7.  Fig  8.  40.  What  bones  between  the  knee  and 
ankle  ? 

•2* 


18 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYG1LNE. 


41.  The  FOOT  is  formed  of  twenty-six  bones  —  seven  in  the 
instep  ;  five  in  the  middle  of  the  foot ;  and  fourteen  toe-bones. 

Observation.  The  bones  of  the  foot  are  so  united  as  to  give 
it  the  form  of  an  arch,  —  convex  on  its  upper  surface,  and  con- 
cave on  the  lower  surface 

Fig.  9. 


Fig.  9.  A  view  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  bones  of  the  foot.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7, 
8,  The  bones  of  the  instep.  9,  9,  9,  The  bones  of  the  middle  of  the  foot.  10,  11,  The 
bones  of  the  great  toe.  12,  13,  14,  The  bones  of  the  small  toes . 


Fig.  10.  A  side  view  of  the  bones  of  the  foot,  showing  its  arched  form.  1  ne  arch 
rests  upon  the  heel  behind,  and  the  ball  of  the  toes  in  front.  1,  The  lower  part  of  the 
tibia.  2,  3,  4,  5,  Bones  of  the  instep.  6,  A  bone  of  the  middle  of  the  foot.  7,  8,  The 
bones  of  the  great  toe. 

42.    The  bones  consist  of  animal  matter,  (jelly,)  and  earthy 
matter,  (phosphate  and  carbonate  of  lime.) 


41.  How  many  bones  in  the  foot,  and  name  them  ?  What  is  the  form 
of  the  foot?  Describe  fig.  9.  Fig.  10.  42.  Of  what  are  the  bones 
composed  ? 


ANATOMY    OF    THE    BONES. 


19 


43.  To  show  the  animal  without  the  earthy  matter  of  the 
bones,  immerse  a  slender  bone  for  a  few  days  in  a  weak  acid, 
(one  part   muriatic  acid  and  six  parts  water,)  and  it  can  then 
be  bent  in  any  direction. 

44.  To  show  the  earthy  without  the  animal  matter,  burn  a 
bone  in  a  clear  fire  for  about  fifteen  minutes,  and  it  becomes 
while  and  brittle. 

45.  The  JOINTS  form  an  interesting  part  of  the  body.    They 
are  composed  of  the  extremities  of  two  or  more  bones,  Car'tr- 
lages,  (gristles,)  Syn-o'vi-al  membrane,  and  Lig'a-ments. 

Fig.  12. 


Fig.  11.  The  relative  position  of  the  bone,  cartilage,  and  synovial  membranfc, 
1,  1,  The  extremities  of  two  bones,  to  form  a  joint.  2,  2,  The  cartilage  that  covers 
the  end  of  the  bone.  3,  3,  3,  3,  The  synovial  membrane,  which  covers  the  cartilage 
of  both  bones,  and  is  then  doubled  back  from  one  to  the  other ;  it  is  represented  by 
the  dotted  lines. 

Fig.  12.  A  vertical  section  of  the  knee-joint  1,  The  femur.  3,  The  patella. 
5.  The  tibia.  2,  4,  Ligaments  of  the  patella.  6.  Cartilage  of  the  tibia.  12,  The 
cartilage  of  the  femur.  *  *  *  *,  The  synovial  membrane, 

46.  CARTILAGE  is*  a  smooth,  solid,  elastic  substance,  that 
covers  the  ends  of  the  bones  that  form  a  joint.  It  prevents 
the  ends  of  the  bones  from  wearing  off,  and  also  diminishes 
the  jar  that  the  joint  receives,  in  walking  or  leaping. 

43.  How  can  the  animal  matter  be  shown  ?.  44.  The  earthy  ?  4o — 48.  De- 
scribe the  parts  that  form  a  joint.  45.  "What  is  said  of  the  joints  ?  Of  what 
are  they  composed  ?  What  is  represented  by  fig.  11  ?  Fig.  12?  46.  Define 
cartilage.  What  is  its  use  ? 


20  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

47.  The  SYNOVIAL  MEMBRANE  is  a  thin,  membranous  layer 
which  covers  the  cartilages,  and  is  thence  bent  back,  or  reflected 
upon  the  inner  surfaces  of  the  ligaments  which  surround  and 
enter   into   the    composition  of  the  joints.      This   membrane 
forms  a  closed  sac.     (Fig.  11.) 

48.  The  LIGAMENTS  are  strong,  inelastic  substances ;  the> 
serve  to  connect  and  bind  together  the  bones  of  the  body. 


Fig.  13 


Fig.  14. 


Fig.  13.  8,  9,  The  ligaments  that  extend  from  the  hip-bone  (6)  to  the  thigh- 
bone, (5.) 

Fig.  14.  2,  3,  The  ligaments  that  extend  from  the  collar-bone  (1)  to  the  shoulder- 
blade,  (4.)  The  ligaments  5,  6,  extend  from  the  shoulder-blade  to  the  first  bone 
of  the  arm. 

Observation.  The  joints  of  the  domestic  animals,  are  similar 
in  their  construction  to  those  of  man.  To  illustrate  this  part  of 
the  body,  a  fresh  joint  of  the  calf  or  sheep  may  be  used. 


47.  Define  synovial  membrane.  48.  "What  are  ligaments  ?  What  is 
their  use  ?  What  is  represented  by  fig.  13  ?  Fig.  14  ?  How  can  the  struc- 
ture of  the  joints  be  illustrated  ? 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF    THE    BONES.  '41 

CHAPTER    IV. 

PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE   BONES. 

49.  THE  bones  are  the  framework  of  the  body.     They  sup- 
port all  the  soft  parts,  as  the  flesh  and  vessels,  and   likewise 
afford  a  firm  surface  for  the  attachment  of  the  ligaments. 

50.  The  use  of  the  various  bones  is  different.     Some  protect 
organs,  as  those  of  the  skull  and  chest,  while  others  are  used 
when  we  move,  as  those  of  the  extremities  and  spinal  column. 

51.  The  bones  are  covered  with  a  firm  mem'brane,  or  skin, 
called  per-i-os'te-um.      This  membrane  and  the  bones,  when 
healthy,  give  us  but  little  pain  if  wounded  ;  but,  if  diseased,  as 
in  "  felons,"  the  pain  is  very  severe. 

52.  The  joints  are  constantly  supplied  with  a  fluid  called 
syn-o'vi-a.     This  operates  like  oil  on  the  joints  of  a  machine. 
By  the  smooth  cartilages  and  synovia,  the  joints  are  enabled 
to  bear  all  the  motion  required  of  them  during  a  great  number 
of  years. 

53.  The  joints  vary  in  their  functions.     Some  are  movable, 
as  the  finger-joints ;  while  others  are  immovable,  as  the  sutures 
of  the  skull. 

54.  The  union  of  the  spinal  column  with  the  skull  exhibits 
one  of  the  most  ingenious  contrivances  to  be  met  with  in  the 
body.     1st.    It  permits  the  backward  and  forward  movement, 
as  in  bowing  and  nodding  the  head.    2d.    The  motion  which 
is  made  in  turning  the  head  from  side  to  side. 

49 — 51.  Give  the  physiology  of  the  bones.  49.  What  is  the  use  of  the 
bones  ?  50.  Give  the  function  of  some  of  the  bones.  51.  "With  what  are 
the  hones  covered  ?  52 — 56.  Give  the  physiology  of  the  joints.  52.  With 
what  are  the  joints  constantly  supplied  ?  What  is  the  use  of  this  fluid 
an  I  the  cartilages?  53.  Mention  some  of  the  functions  of  the  joints. 
54  W  at  is  said  of  the  union  of  the  spinal  column  with  the  skull  ? 


29, 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


55.  This  admirable  piece  of  mechanism  affords  great  pro- 
tection to  the  spinal  cord,  at  the  top  of  the  neck  ;  this  being, 
perhaps,  the  most  vital  portion  of  the  whole  body.     Injury  to 
it,  or  pressure  upon  it,  is  instantly  fatal. 

56.  Some  joints  move  but  in  one  direction,  like  a  hinge  of  a 
door.     These  are  called  Hing&Joints ;  as  the  ankle  and  the 
knee-joint.     Some  joints  move  in  different  directions,  like  a  ball 
in  a  socket.     These  are  called  Ball  and  Socket  Joints  ;  as  the 
•shoulder  and  the  hip-joint. 


Fig.  15. 


Fig.  16 


Fig.  15.  The  knee-joint.  1,  The  lower  extremity  of  the  thigh-bone.  3,  5,  The 
two  rounded  extremities  that  rest  upon  the  upper  extremity  of  the  tibia,  (shin-bone.) 
2,  Two  ligaments  within  the  knee-joint.  6,  7,  The  cartilage  that  tips  the  up;ier 
extremity  of  the  tibia,  (4.) 

Fig.  16.  2,  The  deep  socket  of  the  hip-joint.  5,  The  round  head  of  the  thigh- 
uone,  which  is  lodged  in  the  socket.  3,  The  ligament  within  the  socket. 

Observation.  The  more  movable  a  joint,  the  less  firm  it  is, 
and  the  more  frequently  dislocated.,  or  "  put  out."  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  the  shoulder-joint  is  more  frequently  displaced  than 
any  other  in  the  body. 


55.  What  is  protected  by  this  admirable  piece  of  mechanism  ?  56.  What 
ate  hinge  joints  ?  What  are  ball  and  socket  joints  ?  Why  is  the  shoulder- 
ioint  more  frequently  dislocated  than  any  other  in  the  body  ? 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE    BONES. 
Fig.    17. 


21 


Fig.  17.  1,1,  The  spinal  column.  2,  The  skull.  3,  The  lower  jaw.  4,  The  sternum 
5  The  ribs.  6, 6,  The  cartilages  of  the  ribs.  7,.The  clavicle.  8,  Tne  humerus.  9,  Th* 
shoulder-joint.  10,  The  radius.  11,  The  ulna.  12,  The  elbow-joint  13,  The  wrist. 
14,  The  hand.  15,  The  haunch-bone.  16,  The  sacrum.  17,  The  hip-joint.  18,  The 
thigh-bone.  19,  The  patella.  20,  The  knee-joint.  21,  The  fibula.  22,  The  tibia. 
S3,  The  ankle-joint.  24,  The  foot.  25,  26,  The  ligaments  of  the  clavicle,  sternum, 
anil  ribs.  27,  28,  29,  The  ligaments  of  the  shoulder,  elbow,  and  wrist.  30,  The  large 
rrteryof  the  arm.  31,  The  ligaments  of  the  hip-joint.  32,  The  large  blood-vessels  of  the 

*igh.  33,  The  artery  of  the  leg.   34, 35, 36,  The  ligaments  of  the  patella,  knee,  and  ankle. 

.Vote.     Let  the  pupil,  in  form  of  topies,  review  tho  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the 

mes  from  fig.  17,  or  from  anatomical  outline  plates  1  and  2. 


24  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

CHAPTER    V. 

HYGIENE    OF   THE    BONES. 

57.  The  "bones  require  exercise  to  make  them  healthy.     By 
use  they  are  increased  in  size  and  strength  to  a  limited  extent 
while  inaction  or  disease  weakens  them.     Exercise  favors  the 
deposition  of  the  substances  of  which  they  are  composed. 

58.  The  exercise  or  labor  should  be  adapted  to  the  condition 
of  the  bones.     The  bones  of  a  child  contain  more  of  the  animal 
than  the  earthy  matter,  and  are  consequently  weak ;  though 
the  child  is  able  to  exercise,  its  bones  are  not  adapted  to  severe 
toil.     On  the  other  hand,  the  bones  of  the  aged  man  contain 
more  earthy  than  animal  matter.     This  causes  them  to  be  brit- 
tle and  unfit  for  labor.     But  in  middle  age,  the  proportions  of 
animal  and  earthy  matter  are,  usually,  such  as  to  give  the 
proper  degree  of  flexibility  and  strength  for  labor,  with  little 
liability  to  injury. 

Observation.  The  difference  in  the  structure  of  the  bones 
at  different  ages  may  be  seen,  by  comparing  the  rib  of  a  calf 
or  lamb,  with  the  rib  of  an  ox  or  sheep. 

59.  The   clothing   should  be  loosely  worn.     The  ribs  and 
bones  of  the  spinal  column  are  soft  and  yielding  in  childhood. 
A  small  amount  of  pressure  on  the  walls  of  the  trunk  will 
lessen  the  size  of  the  chest,  and  thus  injure  the  lungs,  stomach 
and  heart. 

60.  In  sitting,  the  feet  of  the  child  should  be  supported.     If 

57 — 63.  Give  the  hygiene  of  the  bones.  57.  What  effect  has  exercise 
upon  the  bones  ?  58.  Give  the  reasons  why  the  amount  of  labor  should  be 
adapted  to  the  condition  of  the  bones.  How  can  the  difference  in  the 
structure  of  the  bones  at  different  ages  be  illustrated  ?  59.  Give  a  reason 
why  the  clothing  should  be  loosely  worn.  60.  Why  should  the  feet  of 
thildren,  when  sitting,  be  supported  ? 


HYGIENE    OF    THE    BONES.  26 

the  stool  is  so  high  as  not  to  permit  the  feet  to  rest  upon  the 
floor,  the  weight  of  the  limbs  below  the  knee  may  cause  the 
flexible  bone  of  the  thigh  to  become  curved.  When  the  feet 
are  not  supported,  the  child  is  inclined  to  lean  forward,  contract- 
ing an  injurious  and  ungraceful  position. 

Observation.  The  seats  in  school-rooms  should  not  only  b« 
of  such  height  as  to  enable  the  pupil  to  rest  the  feet  on  the 
floor,  but  they  should  have  properly-constructed  backs. 


Fig.  18. 


Fig.  19. 


Fig.  18.     The  position  assumed  when  the  seat  is  of  proper  height,  and  the  feel 
supported. 

Fig.  19.    The  position  a  child  naturally  assumes  when  the  seat  is  so  high  that  the 
feet  ate  not  supported. 

61.  Children  should  stand  and  sit  erect.  This  position  tends 
to  keep  the  spinarcolumn  erect  and  healthy  When  a  slight 
curvature  of  the  spine  exists,  it  can  be  improved  by  walking 
with  a  book,  or  a  heavier  weight,  upon  the  top  of  the  head  ;  to 

Should  seats  in  a  school-room  have  backs  ?  61.  Why  should  children 
stand  and  sit  erect  ? 

a 


26  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,   AND    HYGIENE. 

balance  which,  the  spine  must  be  nearly  erect.  Those  people 
that  carry  their  burdens  upon  their  heads  seldom  have  crooked 
spines. 

62.  Pupils,  while  writing,  drawing,  and  sometimes  while 
studying,  frequently  incline  the  spinal  column  to  one  side,  in 
order  to  accommodate  themselves  to  the  desks  at  which  they 
ire  seated.  This  position  elevates  one  shoulder,  while  it  de- 
Dresses  the  other. 

Fig.  20. 


Fig.  20.  A  representation  of  a  deformed  spinal  column-  A  well-formed  spinal 
column  has  three  curves,  two  forward  and  one  backward,  (2,  2, 2,  fig.  25,)  but  no 
nteral  curvature,  (1,  1,  fig.  17.) 

63.  One  shoulder  may  be  thus  elevated  for  a  short  time,  and 
no  injurious  results  follow,  provided  care  is  taken  not  to  keep  it 
in  the  raised  position  too  long,  or  if  the  opposite  shouldeR  is 
elevated  for  the  same  period  of  time. 

What  is  the  effect  of  carrying  burdens  upon  the  head  ?  62.  What  is  the 
effect  of  pupils  using  desks  that  are  too  high  or  improperly  constructed  ? 
63.  How  can  one  shoulder  be  elevated,  and  no  injurious  results  follow  ? 


A.NATOMY    OF    THE    MUSCLES.  27 


CHAPTER    VI. 

THE    MUSCLES. 

64.  AIL  the  great  motions  of  the  body  are  caused  by  the 
movement  of  some  of  the  bones  which  form  the  framework  of 
the  body  ;  but  these,  independently  of  themselves,  have  not  the 
power  of  motion,  and  only  change  their  position  through  the 
action  of  other  organs  attached  to  them,  which,  by  contracting, 
or  shrinking,  draw  the  bones  after  them.     In  some  of  the  slight 
movements,  as  the  winking  of  the  eye,  no  bones  are  displaced, 
or  moved.     These  moving,  contracting  organs  are  the  Muscles, 
(lean  meat.) 

ANATOMY  OF  THE  MUSCLES. 

65.  A  MUSCLE  is  composed  of  many  little  strings,  called 
fibres.     Some  of  these  fibres   run  in  straight  lines;   others 
spread  like  a  fan ;  while  some  are  inclined  like  the  feathery 
part  of  a  quill.     (Fig.  21.) 

66.  Toward  the  extremities  of  a  muscle  the  fibres  unite,  and 
form  a  substance  of  a  whitish  color,  harder  and  tougher  than 
the  muscle.     This  is  called  ten1  don,  (cord,  sinew.) 

Observation.  The  pupil  can  examine  a  piece  of  boiled 
beef,  or  the  leg  of  a  fowl,  and  see  the  structure  of  the  fibres 
and  tendons  of  a  muscle,  with  the  attachment  of  the  tendons 
to  the  bones. 

67.  Tendons   have   various   shapes.     Sometimes   they   are 

64.  How  are  all  the  great  motions  of  the  body  produced  ?  What  are 
these  moving,  contracting  organs  called  ?  65 — 72.  Give  the  structure  of  the 
muscles.  65.  Of  what  is  a  muscle  composed  ?  60.  What  is  a  tendon  ? 
How  can  the  structure  of  a  muscle  be  shown  ?  67.  What  is  the  shape  of 
tendons  ? 


28 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


long,  slender  strings ;  sometimes  they  are  shon  arid  thick ; 
again,  in  some  situations,  they  are  thin  and  broad.  They  serve 
to  fasten  the  muscles  to  the  bones,  or  to  each  other. 

Observation.  In  some  instances,  the  synovial  membrane, 
which  forms  the  sheath  of  the  tendons,  is  ruptured,  and  the 
synovial  fluid  escapes.  This  forms  a  tumor,  called  a  gan'gli-on^ 
(weeping  sinew.)  It  is  called  a  wind-gall  when  on  the  limbs 
of  a  horse. 

68.  In  the  description  of  a  muscle,  its  attachments  are  ex- 
pressed by  the  terms  origin  and  insertion.  The  term  origin  is 
generally  applied  to  the  more  fixed  or  central  attachment,  or  to 
the  points  toward  which  motion  is  directed ;  while  insertion  is 
assigned  to  the  more  movable  point,  or  to  that  most  distant  from 
the  centre.  The  middle,  fleshy  portion,  is  called  the  "  belly," 
or  swell 


Fig.  21.  1,  Represents  the  fibres  of  a  rnusclo  running  in  straight  lines.  2,  The 
fan-shaped  fibres.  3,  4,  Fibres  inclined  like  the  plumes  of  a  quill.  A,  £,  Tendons  at 
vhe  extremities  of  the  muscle,  1. 

69.    In  some  parts  of  the  body,  there  is   but  one  layer  of 
muscle  over  the   bones;  in  other  parts,  there  are  five  or  six 


How  are  the  tumors  formed,  called  weeping  sinews  ?  68.  How  are  the 
attachments  of  muscles  expressed  ?  What  is  the  middle  portion  called? 
69.  How  many  layers  of  muscles  are  there  around  the  bones  ? 


ANATOMY    OF    THE    MUSCLES.  '2iJ 

layers,  one  muscle  being  placed  over  another.     They  are  sepa- 
rated by  a  thin,  whitish  membrane,  called  fas'ci-a. 

Observation.  An  instance  is  seen  in  the  membrane  which 
envelops  a  leg  of  beef,  and  which  is  observed  on  the  edges 
of  a  slice  when  it  is  cut  for  broiling. 

70.  In   general,   the   muscles   form   about   the   bones   two 
layers,  called   the   superficial,  or  external   muscles ;  and  the 
deep-seated,  or  those  nearest  the  bone. 

71.  There   are    more  than  four   hundred   muscles  in   the 
human   body.     To  these,  and  a  yellow  substance,  called  fat, 
that  surrounds  and  fills  the  spaces  in  the  muscles,  the  child 
and  youth  are  indebted  for  the  roundness  and  beauty  of  their 
limbs. 

Observation.  When  we  are  sick,  and  cannot  tak^  food,  the 
body  is  fed  with  this  fat.  The  removal  of  it  into  the  blood 
causes  the  sunken  cheek,  hollow  eye,  and  prominem.  appear- 
ance of  the  bones,  after  a  severe  sickness. 

72.  When  we  look  at  this  "  harp  of  thousand  string,"  and 
notice  the  varied,  rapid,  complicated,  yet  accurate  movements 
it  performs  in  a  single  day,  our  thoughts  are  lost  in  wonder,  in 
contemplating  this  superb  and  intricate  machine,  framed  and 
finished  by  the  divine  Architect. 

How  are  they  separated  from  each  other  ?  Give  an  instance  where  this 
membrane  may  be  seen.  70.  How  many  layers  of  muscles  generally  around 
the  bones,  and  what  are  they  called  ?  71.  How  many  muscles  in  the  hu- 
man body  ?  Why  are  the  limbs  of  a  child  more  round  and  full  than  an 
aged  person's  ?  How  is  the  body  nourished  when  we  cannot  take  food  ? 

3* 


30  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY     AND    HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER    VTI. 

PHYSIOLOGY    OF    THE    MUSCLES. 

73.  EVERY  motion  of  the  body  is  made  by  the  contraction 
of  the  fibres  of  the  muscles ;   from  the  awkward  movement 
of  the  boy's  first  effort  at  penmanship,  to  the  delicate   and 
graceful  sweeps  of  the  pianist ;  from  the  firm,  the  stately  tread 
of  the  soldier,  to  the  light,  fairy-like  step  of  the  danseuse 

Illustration.  The  muscles  and  fendons  are  to  the  bones 
what  the  ropes  are  to  the  sails  and  yards  of  a  ship.  By  their 
action,  the  direction  of  the  sails  and  yards  is  changed.  So,  by 
the  action  of  the  muscles,  the  position  of  the  bones  of  the  body 
is  changed. 

74.  Each  fibre  of  the  several  muscles  receives  from  the 
brain,  through  the  nervous  filament  appropriated  to  it,  a  certain 
influence  called  nervous  fluid,  or  stimulus.     It  is  this  that  in- 
duces contraction,  while  the  suspension  of  this  stimulus  causes 
relaxation  of  the  fibres. 

75.  Muscles  remain  contracted  but  a  short  time  ;  then  they 
relax,  or  lengthen,  which  is  their  rest.     When  the  muscles  are 
in  a  state  of  contraction,  they  are  full,  hard,  and  more  prom- 
inent than  when  relaxed. 

76.  The  alternate  contraction  and  relaxation  of  the  muscles 
may  be  shown  by  the  following  experiment :  — 

Experiment.  Clasp  the  fore-arm  about  three  inches  below 
the  elbow,  then  open  and  shut  the  fingers  rapidly,  and  the 

73 — 99.  Give  the  physiology  of  the  muscles.  73.  How  is  every  motion  of 
the  body  produced  ?  74.  With  what  is  each  muscular  fibre  supplied  ? 
What  effect  has  this  stimulus  on  the  muscles  ?  75.  Do  muscles  remain 
contracted  a  long  time  ?  What  is  their  appearance  when  in  a  state  of  con- 
tract ion?  76.  How  can  the  alternate  contraction  and  relaxation  of  the 
muscles  be  shown  ? 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE    MUSCLES.  31 

swelling  and  relaxation  of  the  muscles  on  the  opposite  sides  of 
the  arms,  alternately  with  each  other,  will  be  felt  correspond- 
ing with  the  movement  of  the  fingers.  While  the  fingers  are 
bending,  the  inside  muscles  swell  and  the  outside  ones  become 
flaccid  •  and,  while  the  fingers  are  extending,  the  inside  mus- 
cles relax  and  the  outside  ones  swell.  The  alternate  swelling 
and  relaxation  of  opposing  muscles  may  be  felt  in  all  the  move- 
ments of  the  limbs. 

Fig.  22. 


2  4 

A  representation  of  the  manner  in  which  all  of  the  joints  of  the  body  are  moved 

Fig.  22.  1,  The  bone  of  the  arm  above  the  elbow.  2,  One  of  the  bones  below  the 
elbow.  3,  The  muscle  that  bends  the  elbow.  This  muscle  is  united,  by  a  tendon,  to 
the  bone  below  the  elbow,  (4  ;)  at  the  other  extremity,  to  the  bone  above  the  elbow, 
(5.)  6,  The  muscle  that  extends  the  elbow.  7,  Its  attachment  to  the  point  of  the 
elliow.  8,  A  weight  in  the  hand,  to  be  raised.  The  central  part  of  the  muscle  (3) 
contracts,  and  its  two  ends  are  brought  nearer  together.  The  bones  below  the  elbow 
are  brought  to  the  lines  shown  by  9,  JO,  11.  The  weight  is  raised  in  the  direction  of 
the  curved  line.  When  the  muscle  (6)  contracts,  the  muscle  (3)  relaxes,  and  the  el 
bow  is  extended. 

77.  The  eyebrows  are  elevated,  or  raised  by  the  contraction 
of  the  muscles  on  the  forehead,  1,  fig.  23. 

78.  The  eyes  are  closed  by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles 
that  surround  them,  2,  fig.  23. 

Explain  fig.  22. 

Note.  Let  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  muscular  system  be  re- 
viewed, in  form  of  topics,  from  figs.  23,  24,  or  from  the  outline  anatomical 
plates  3  and  4. 


32  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

79.  The  upper  lip  is  elevated  by  the  contraction  of  the  mus 
cles,  3,  4,5,  6,  fig.  23. 

80.  The  mouth  is  closed  by  the  contraction  of  a  muscle  tha* 
surrounds  it,  7,  fig.  23. 

81.  The  lower  lip  is  drawn  down,  or  depressed,  by  the  con- 
traction of  muscles  on  the  lower  part  of  the  face,  8,  fig.  23. 

82.  The  head  is  bent  forward,  as  in  nodding,  by  the  contrac- 
tion of  muscles  on  the  front  part  of  the  neck,  9,  fig.  23. 

83.  The  chin  is  raised,  and  the  head  is  brought  erect  by  the 
contraction  of  muscles  on  the  back  part  of  the  neck,  5,  6,  fig.  24. 

84.  The  body  is  bent  forward,  and  the  ribs  brought  down, 
by  the  contraction  of  muscles  on  the  front  and  lower  part  of 
the  trunk,  22,  23,  fig.  23. 

85.  The  spinal  column  is  kept  erect  by  the  muscles  at  the 
lower  and  back  part  of  the  trunk,  24,  25,  26,  fig.  24. 

86.  The  shoulders  are  brought  forward  by  the  muscles  upon 
the  upper  and  front  part  of  the  chest,  11,  fig.  23. 

87.  The  shoulders  are  brought  back  by  the  contraction  of  the 
muscles  upon  the  upper  and  back  part  of  the  chest,  7,  fig.  24. 

88.  The  arm  is  elevated  by  a  muscle  upon  the  shoulder,  10, 
fig.  23 ;  and  8,  fig.  24. 

89.  The  arm  is  brought  to  the  side  by  muscles,  11,  fig.  23; 
and  24,  fig.  24. 

90.  The  elbow  is  bent  by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  on 
the  upper  and  front  side  of  the  arm,  14,  fig.  23. 

91.  The  elbow  is  extended  by  a  muscle  on  the  back  part  of 
the  arm,  10,  fig.  24. 

92.  The  wrist  and  fingers  are  bent  by  the  muscles  on  the 
front  part  of  the  arm,  below  the  elbow,  16,  18,  fig.  23. 

93.  The  muscles  on  the  back  part  of  the  arm,  below  the 
elbow,  extend  the  wrist  and  fingers,  21,  22,  23,  fig.  24. 

94.  The  muscles  that  bend  the  lower  limbs,  at  the  hip,  are 
situated  at  the  lower  and  front  part  of  the  trunk,  and  the  uppei 
and  front  part  of  the  thigh,  25,  26,  27,  28,  fig.  23. 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF    THE    MUSCLES,  ;J3 

95.  The   lower    limbs   are   extended   at   the    hips    by   the 
muscles  on  the  lower  and  back  part  of  the  trunk,  and  the  upper 
and  back  part  of  the  thigh,  27,  28,  fig.  24. 

96.  The  muscles  upon  the  front  part  of  the  thigh  extend  the 
leg  at  the  knee,  29,  30,  fig.  23. 

97.  The  knee  is  bent  by  the  muscles  upon  the  back  part  of 
the  thigh,  29,  30,  fig.  24. 

98.  The  muscles  upon  the  fore  part  of  the  leg,  below  the 
knee,  bend  the  foot  at  the  ankle,  and  extend  the  toes,  34,  35, 
36,  fig.  23. 

99.  The  muscles  upon  the  back  part  of  the  leg,  below  the 
knee,  extend  the  foot  at  the  ankle,  and  bend  the  toes,  31,  32 
33,  fig.  24. 

Observation.  It  would  be  a  profitable  exercise  for  pupils  to  ^ 
press  their  fingers  upon  prominent  muscles,  and,  at  the  same  f 
time,  vigorously  contract  them,  not  only  to  learn  their  situations,  \ 
but  their  use ;  as  the  one  that  bends  the  arm,  14,  fig.  23. 

[Pig.  23.  A  front  view  of  the  muscles  of  the  body.  1,  The  frontal  swells  of  tlie 
occipito-frontalis.  2,  The  orbiciilaris  palpebrarum.  3,  The  levator  labii  superioris 
alxque  nasi.  4,  The  zygomaticus  major.  5,  The  zygnmaticus  minor.  6,  Tlie 
masseter.  7,  Theorbicula-isoris.  8,  The  depressor  labii  inferioris.  9,  The  platysma 
myoides.  10,  The  deltoid,  li;  The  pectoralis  major.  12,  The  latissimus  dorsi 
13,  The  serratus  major  anticus.  14,  The  biceps  flexor  cubiti.  15,  The  triceps  ex- 
tensor cubiti.  16,  The  supinator  radii  longns.  17,  The  pronator  radii  teres.  18,  The 
extensor  carpi  radialis  longior.  19,  The  extensor  ossis  metacarpi  pollicis.  20,  The 
annular  ligament  21,  The  palmar  fascia.  22,  The  obliquus  externus  abdominis. 
23,  The  linea  alba,  24,  The  tensor  vaginae  femoris.  26,  The  ;»so:is  magnus, 
27,  The  abductor  longus.  28,  The  sartorius.  29,  The  rectus  femoris.  31),  The 
vastus  externus.  31,  The  vastus  internus.  32,  The  tendo  patellae.  33,  The  gas- 
trocnemius.  34,  The  tibialis  anticus.  35,  The  tibia.  36,  The  tendons  of  the  ex 
tensor  communis. 

Fig.  24.  A  back  view  of  the  muscles  of  tlie  body.  1,  The  temporal.  2,  The 
occipito-frontalis.  3,  The  complexus.  4,  The  splcnius.  5,  The  masseter.  6,  The 
sterno-cleido  mastoideus.  7,  The  trapezius.  8,  The  deltoid.  9,  The  infra  spinatus. 
10,  The  triceps  extensor.  11,  The  teres  minor.  12,  The  teres  major.  13,  The 
tendinous  portion  of  the  triceps.  14,  The  anterior  edge  of  the  triceps.  15,  The 
supinator  radii  longus.  16,  The  pronator  radii  teres.  17,  The  extensor  comnmnis 
digitorum.  18,  The  extensor  ossis  metacarpi  pollicis.  19,  The  extensor  communis 
digitormn  tendons.  20,  The  olecranon  and  insert:on  of  the  triceps.  -21,  The  exten- 
sor carpi  ulnaris.  22,  The  auricularis.  23.  The  extensor  communis.  24,  The  latis- 
simus  dorsi.  25,  Its  tendinous  origin.  25,  Ti:c  obliquus  externus.  27,  The  gluten* 
medius.  28,  The  gluteus  magnus.  29,  The  biceps  flexor  cruris.  JO,  The  sen; .tea- 
dinosus.  31,3s?,  The  CH-slrornemiiis.  33,  The  tendo-/ chillis.] 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 
Fig.  23. 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE    MUSCLES. 
Fig.  24. 


3fi  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,   AND    HYGIENK. 

i 

CHAPTER    VIII. 

HYGIENE    OF    THE    MUSCLES. 

100.  The  muscles  should  le  used  and   then  rested.      This 
«vill  increase  their  size  and  strength,  by  increasing  the  flow  of 
blood  to  the  parts  called  into  action.     A  muscle  should  not  be 
used   too   long,  or  remain  at   rest   too  long ;  both  are  alike 
injurious. 

Illustrations.  1st.  The  blacksmith  uses  and  rests  the  mus- 
cles of  his  arm  when  striking  upon  the  anvil.  They  not  only 
become  large,  but  very  firm  and  hard. 

2d.  The  student  uses  the  muscles  of  the  arm  but  little,  in 
holding  his  books  and  pen ;  they  are  not  only  small,  but  soft. 

3d.  Let  the  student  leave  his  books,  and  wield  an  iron  sledge, 
and  the  muscles  of  his  arm  will  increase  in  size  and  firmness. 
On  the  other  hand,  let  the  blacksmith  assume  the  student's 
vocation,  and  the  muscles  of  his  arm  will  become  soft  and 
less  firm. 

101.  Exercise  should  be  regular  and  frequent.     The  sys- 
tem needs  this  means  of  invigoration  as  regularly  as  it  does 
new  supplies  of  food.     It  is  no  more  correct  that  we  devote 
several    days    to   a  proper  action  of  the    muscles,  and  then 
spend  one  day  inactively,  than  it  is  to  take  a  proper  amount 
of  food  for  several  days,  and   then  withdraw  this  supply  for 
a  day.     (See  note  A.  page  42.) 

102.  Every  part   of  the  muscular  system   should  have  its 
appropriate  share  of  exercise.     Some  employments  call  into 

100 — 118.  Give  the  hygiene  of  the  muscles.  100.  Why  should  every  mus- 
cle be  used  ?  "What  is  injurious  to  muscles  ?  How  is  the  effect  of  using 
muscles  illustrated  ?  101.  Why  should  the  exercise  of  the  muscles  be 
regular  and  frequent  ?  102.  What  employments  and  amusements  are  best 
for  the  health  ? 


OF    THE    MUSCLKS.  37 

exercise  the  muscles  of  the  upper  limbs,  as  shoe-making  ;  others 
the  muscles  of  the  lower  limbs ;  while  some  the  muscles  of  both 
upper  and  lower  limbs,  with  those  of  the  trunk,  as  farming. 
Those  trades  and  kinds  of  exercise  are  most  salutary,  in  which 
all  the  muscles  have  their  due  proportion  of  action,  as  this  tends 
to  develop  and  strengthen  them  equally. 

103.  The  proper  time  for  exercise  should  be  observed.     This 
is  modified   by  many  circumstances.     As  a  general  rule,  the 
morning,  when  the  air  is  pure  and  the  ground  dry,  is  better  than 
the  evening;    for  then,  the  powers  of  the  body  are  greatest. 
We  should  avoid  severe  exercise  and  labor  immediately  before 
and  after  eating  a  full  meal,  for  the  energies  of  the  system  are 
then  required  to  perform  the  digestive  function. 

104.  The  muscles  should  be  used  in  pure  air.     The  purer 
the  air  we  breathe,  the  longer  can  the  muscles  be  used  in  labor, 
walking,  or  sitting,  without  fatigue  and  injury  ;  hence  the  bene- 
fit derived  in  thoroughly  ventilating  all  inhabited  rooms. 

Observation.  It  is  a  common  remark  that  sick  persons 
will  sit  up  longer  when  riding  in  a  carriage,  than  in  an  easy 
chair  in  the  room  where  they  have  lain  sick.  In  the  one 
instance,  they  breathe  pure  air,  in  the  other,  usually,  a  con- 
fined, impure  air. 

105.  The  muscles  should  be  exercised  in  the  light.     Light, 
particularly  that  of  the  sun,  exercises  as  great  an  influence  on 
man  as  it  does  on  plants.     Both  require  the  stimulus  of  this 
agent.     Students   should  take  their  exercise  during  the  day, 
rather  than  in  the  evening,  and  the  farmer  and  the  mechanic 
should  avoid  night  toil,  as  it  is  much  more  exhausting  than  the 
same  eifort  during  daylight. 

Illustrations.  Plants  that  grow  in  the  shade,  as  under  a 
board,  are  of  lighter  color  and  more  feeble  than  those  that  are 

Why  ?  103.  What  time,  in  general,  is  best  for  exercise  ?  What  should  be 
avoided  ?  104.  Why  should  the  muscles  be  used  in  pure  air  ?  Give  obser- 
vation. 105.  Why  should  students  take  their  exercise  in  the  daytime  ? 
What  should  farmers  and  mechanics  avoid  ?  Why  ?  How  is  the  influence 
of  solar  light  illustrated  ? 
4 


38  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

exposed  to  the  light  of  the  sun.  Persons  that  dwell  in  dark 
rooms,  are  paler  and  less  vigorous  than  those  who  inhabit 
apartments  well  lighted,  and  exposed  to  solar  light. 

106.  Every  muscle  should  move  freely.     Compression   by 
any  means,  lessens  the  size  and  strength  of  the  muscle. 

Illustration.  Let  a  surgeon  bandage  a  limb  for  some  weeks, 
when  a  bone  is  broken,  and  when  the  bandage  is  removed,  the 
limb  will  be  found  smaller  than  when  the  accident  occurred. 
The  compression  by  close  dresses  produces  similar  effects  upon 
the  muscles  of  the  body. 

107.  The  state  of  the  mind  affects  muscular  contraction.     A 
person  who  is  cheerful  and  happy  will  do  more  work,  and  with 
less  fatigue,  than  one  who  is  peevish  and  unhappy. 

Illustration.  A  sportsman  will  pursue  his  game  miles  with- 
out fatigue,  while  his  attendant,  not  having  any  mental  stimu- 
lus, will  become  weary. 

108.  The  erect  attitude  lessens  the  exhaustion  of  the  muscles 
A  person  will  stand  longer,  walk  farther,  and  do  more  work, 
when  erect,  than  in  a  stooping  posture ;  because  the  muscles 
of  the  back,  in  stooping,  are  in  a  state  of  tension,  or  stretching, 
to  keep  the  head  and  trunk  from  falling  forward.     In  the  erect 
position,  the  head  and  trunk  are  nicely  balanced  and  supported 
by  the  bones  of  the  spinal  column,  and  the  muscles  of  the  back 
are  called  but  slightly  into  action. 

Experiment.  Hold  in  each  hand  a  pail  of  water,  or  equal 
weights,  in  a  stooping  posture,  as  long  as  it  can  be  done  with- 
out much  suffering  and  injury.  Again,  when  the  muscular 
pain  has  ceased,  hold  the  same  weights,  for  the  same  length  of 
time,  in  an  erect  posture,  and  note  the  difference  in  the  fatigue 
of  the  muscles. 

Observation.     The  attitude  of  children  in  standing  has  been 

106.  "Why  should  every  muscle  move  freely  ?  How  is  the  effect  of  com 
pression  illustrated  ?  107-  Does  the  mind  affect  the  action  of  the  muscles  ? 
How  is  this  illustrated  ?  108.  "What  attitude  lessens  the  exhaustion  of  the 
muscles?  "Why?  How  is  the  effect  of  position  shown  by  exp«*nment  J 
VVhat  is  said  respecting  the  attitude  of  children  ? 


HYGIENE    OF   THE    MUSCLES.  39 

much  neglected  both  by  parents  and  teachers.  Let  a  child 
acquire  the  habit  of  inclining  his  head  and  shoulders,  and  the 
chest  will  become  contracted,  the  muscles  of  the  back  enfeebled, 
and  the  deformity  thus  acquired  will  progress  to  advanced  age. 


Fig.  26. 


Fig.  25.  1,  A  perpendicular  line  from  the  centre  of  the  feet  to  the  upper  extrein 
ity  of  the  spinal  column,  where  the  head  rests.  2,  2,2,  The  spinal  column,  with  its 
three  natural  curves.  Here  the  head  and  body  are  balanced  upon  the  spinal  column 
and  joints  of  the  lower  extremities,  so  that  the  muscles  are  not  kept  in  a  state  of  ten- 
sion.  This  erect  position  of  the  body  and  head  is  always  accompanied  with  straight 
lower  limbs. 

Fig.  26.  1,  A  perpendicular  line  from  the  centre  of  the  feet.  2,  Represents  the  un 
natural  curved  spinal  column,  and  its  relative  position  to  the  perpendicular,  (1.)  Tho 
lower  limbs  are  seen  curved  at  the  knee,  and  the  body  is  stooping  forward.  While 
standing  in  this  position,  the  muscles  <.  f  the  lower  limbs  and  back  are  in  continued 
tension,  which  exhausts  and  weakens  them. 

"What  is  represented  by  figs.  25  and  26  ? 


40 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


109.  While  study ing ,  drawing,  writing,  and  sewing,  the 
body  should  be  kept  erect.  This  attitude  favors  a  healthy  action 
of  the  various  organs  of  the  body,  and  conduces  to  beauty  and 
symmetry  of  form.  On  the  contrary,  narrow  chests,  "  hollow 
stomachs,"  "  round  shoulders,"  and  ill  health,  follow  a  viola- 
tion of  this  rule. 


Fig.  28 


Fig.  27.     An  improper,  but  not  an  unusual  position  in  sitting. 
Fig.  28      A  proper  position  in  sitting. 

110.  Muscles  should  be  gradually  called  into  action.  When 
the  muscular  system  has  been  in  a  state  of  rest,  it  should  not 
suddenly  be  called  into  vigorous  action.  On  arising  from  a 
bed,  lounge,  or  chair,  the  first  movements  of  the  limbs  should 
be  slow,  and  then,  if  necessary,  gradually  increased. 

109.  What  is  one ^ cause  of  narrow  chests  and  round  shoulders? 
110.  What  caution  is  given  in  using  the  muscles  when  they  have  been  in 
a  state  of  rest  ?  What  does  fig.  27  show  ?  Fig.  28  ? 


HYGIENE    OF    THE    MUSCLES.  4J 

Observation.  If  a  man  has  a  certain  amount  of  work  to  be 
performed  in  nine  hours,  and  his  muscles  have  been  in  a  state 
of  rest,  he  will  do  it  with  less  fatigue  by  performing  half  the 
amount  of* the  labor  in  five  hours,  and  the  remainder  in  four 
hours.  The  same  principle  should  be  regarded  in  driving 
horses  and  other  beasts  of  burden. 

111.  Muscles  should  be  rested  gradually,  when   they  have 
been  vigorously  used.     If  a  person  has  been   making  great 
muscular  exertion  in  cutting  wood,  or  any  other  employment, 
instead  of  sitting  down  to  rest,  he  should  continue  muscular 
action  by  some  moderate  labor,  or  amusement. 

112.  When  the  skin  is  covered  with  perspiration,  (sweat,) 
from  muscular  action,  avoid  sitting  down  "  to  cool "  in  a  current 
of  air ;  rather  put  on  more  clothing,  and  continue  to  exercise 
moderately. 

113.  In  cases  when  severe  action  of  the  muscles  has  been 
endured,  bathing  and  rubbing  the  skin  over  the  joints  that  have 
been  used,  are  of  much  importance.     This  will  prevent  soreness 
of  the  muscles  and  stiffness  of  the  joints. 

114.  In  labor,  or  exercise,  the  muscles  should  be  relaxed. 
In  walking,  dancing,  and  learning  to  write,  there  will  be  less 
fatigue,  and  the  movements  will  be  more  graceful,  when  the 
muscles  are    slightly  relaxed,  than  when  rigidly  contracted 
The  same   principle  applies  to  most  of  the  mechanical   em- 
ployments. 

Experiments.  Attempt  to  bow  with  the  muscles  of  the 
limbs  and  trunk  rigid,  and  there  will  be  a  stiff  bending  of  the 
body  only  at  the  hip-joint.  On  the  other  hand,  attempt  to  bow 
with  the  muscles  moderately  relaxed  ;  the  ankle,  the  knee,  and 

Give  observation.  Should  the  same  principle  be  observed  in  driving 
horses  ?  111.  How  should  muscles  be  rested  when  they  have  been  vigor- 
ously used  ?  112.  "When  the  skin  is  covered  with  perspiration  from  muscu- 
lar action,  how  should  it  be  "  cooled"  ?  113.  How  can  soreness  of  the  mus- 
cles be  prevented  ?  114.  In  what  state  should  be  the  muscles  of  the  arm  i» 
writing  or  performing  most  employments  ?  How  is  this  principle  shown  by 
experiments  ? 


42  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

the  hip-joint  will  slightly  bend,  accompanied  with  an  easy  aH 
graceful  curve  of  the  body. 

115.  When  riding  in  cars  and  coaches,  the  system  will  not 
suffer   so   severely  from   the  jar  if  the  muscles  are   slightly 
relaxed.     When   riding   over  uneven'  places  in  roads,  rising 
slightly  upon  the  feet  diminishes  the  shock  occasioned  by  the 
sudden   motion   of  the  carriage.     The    muscles,   under    such 
circumstances,  are  to  the  body  what  elastic  springs  are  to  a 
carriage. 

116.  In  jumping  or  falling  from  a  carriage,  or  any  height, 
t/ie  shock  to  the  organs  of  the  body  may  be  obviated  in  the 
three  following  ways.     1st.    Let  the  muscles  be  relaxed,  not 
rigid.     2d.    Let  the  limbs  be  bent  at  the  ankle,  knee,  and  hips  ; 
the  head  should  be  thrown  slightly  forward,  with  the  trunk  a 
little  stooping.     3d.    Fall  upon  the  toes,  not  the  heel. 

117.  Repetition  of  muscular  action  is  necessary.     To  render 
the  action  of  the  muscles  complete  and  effective,  they  must  be 
called  into  action  repeatedly  and  at   proper   intervals.     This 
education  must  be  continued  until  not  only  each  muscle,  but 
every  fibre  of  the  muscle,  is  fully  under  the  control  of  the  will. 
In   this   way,  persons    become   expert   penmen,  "singers,   and 
skilful  in  every  employment. 

118.  In  training  the  muscles  for  effective  action,  it  is  very 
important   that   correct   movements  be  adopted   at   the   com- 
mencement.    If  this  is  neglected,  much  power  will  be  lost. 


Note  A.  The  custom  among  farmers  of  enduring  severe  and  un- 
due toil  for  several  successive  days,  and  then  spending  one  or  two 
days  in  idleness,  to  rest,  is  injudicious.  It  would  be  far  better  to  do 
less  in  a  day,  and  continue  the  labor  through  the  period  devoted  to 
idleness,  and  then  no  rest  will  be  demanded. 

115.  "What  suggestion  when  riding  in  cars  or  coaches  ?  116.  In  jumping 
from  a  carriage,  in  how  many  "ways  can  the  shock  to  the  organs  of  the  body 
be  obviated  ?  Give  the  1st.  The  2d.  The  3d.  117.  How  do  persons  be- 
come expert  penmen,  singers,  or  skilful  in  any  employment  ?  118.  What 
is  necessary  in  training  the  muscles  for  effective  action  ? 


ANATOMY    OF   THE    TEETH. 


43 


CHAPTER    IX. 

ANATOMY   OF    THE    TEETH. 

119.   THE  teeth  are  firmly  fixed  in  the  sockets  of  the  upper 
and   lower  jaw.     The   first   set,  which  appear  in  infancy,  is 
called  tem'po-ra-ry,  or  milk-teeth.     They  are  twenty  in  num 
her;  ten  in  each  jaw. 

Fig.  29. 


Fig.  29  The  permanent  teeth  of  the  upper  and  lower  jaw.  a,  6,  The  incisors 
e,  The  cuspids,  d,  t,  The  bicuspids.  /,  g,  The  molars,  (double  teeth.).  A,  The 
wisdom  teeth. 

120.  Between  six  and  fourteen  years  of  age,  the  temporary 
teeth  are  removed,  and  the  second  set  appears,  called  per'ma- 
nent  teeth.     They  number  thirty-two,  sixteen  in  each  jaw. 

121.  The  four  front  teeth  in  each  jaw  are  called  in-ci'sors^ 

119—123.  Give  tJie  anatomy  of  the  teeth.  119.  In  what  are  the  teeth 
placed  ?  What  is  the  first  set  called  ?  How  many  in  number  ?  Describe 
fig.  29.  1.20.  When  are  these  teeth  removed  ?  What  is  the  second  set 
called  ?  How  many  in  each  jaw  ?  121.  What  are  the  teeth  in  front  called  ? 


44  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

(cutting  teeth ;)  the  next  tooth  on  each  side,  the  cus'pid,  (eye 
tooth  ;)  the  next  two,  bi-cus'pids,  (small  grinders  ;)  the  next  two. 
mo'lars,  (grinders.)  The  last  one  on  each  side  of  the  jaw,  is 
called  a  wisdom  tooth,  because  it  does  not  appear  until  a  person 
is  about  twenty  years  old. 

122.  Each  tooth  is  divided  into  two  parts ;  namely,  crown 
and  root.  The  crown  is  that  part  which  protrudes  from  the 
jaw-bone  and  gum.  The  root,  or  "fang,"  is  placed  in  the 
sockets  of  the  jaw. 

Pig.  30.  Kg.  31. 


Fig.  30.    A  side  view  of  the  body  and  enamel  of  a  front  tooth. 

Fig.  31.  A  side  view  of  a  molar  tooth.  1,  The  enamel.  2,  The  body  of  the  tootli 
3,  The  cavity  in  the  crown  of  the  tooth.  4,  A  nerve  that  spreads  in  the  pulp  of  the 
tooth.  5,  An  artery  that  ramifies  in  the  pulp  of  the  tooth. 

123.  The  crowns  of  the  teeth  are  covered  with  a  very  hard 
substance,  called  en-am1  el.     The  roots  consist  of  bony  matter. 

PHYSl'OLOGY    OF    THE    TEETH. 

124.  The  use  of  the  teeth  is  twofold.      1st.    By  a  rutting 
and  grinding  movement,  they  divide  the  masses  of  food  into 

The  next  ?  The  next  two  ?  Those  next  the  bicuspids  ?  The  last  that 
appear  in  the  jaw  ?  122.  How  is  each  tooth  divided  ?  Which  part  of  the 
tooth  is  the  crown  ?  Which  the  root  ?  123.  With  what  are  the  crowns 
of  the  teeth  covered  ?  Of  what  does  the  root  consist  ?  Describe  fig.  31. 
124 — 126.  Give  the  physiology  of 'the  teeth.  124.  What  is  one  use  of  the  teeth? 


HYGIENE    OF    THE   TEETH.  45 

smaller  pieces,  so  that  they  are  more  easily  and  readily  changed 
in  the  stomach. 

125.  2d.  The  teeth  aid  us   in   speaking  with  distinctness 
^rtain  letters  and  words.     An  individual  who  has  lost  his  front 
oth  cannot  pronounce  distinctly  certain  lexers,  called  dental. 

126.  The  teeth  also  give  beauty  to  the  lower  part  of  the 
face.     When  they  are  removed,  the  lips  and  cheeks  sink  in,  as 
is  frequently  seen  in  old  age.     Consequently,    those   simpie 
observances  that  tend  to  the  preservation  of  the  teeth,  are  of 
practical  interest  to  all  persons. 


HYGIENE    OF   THE    TEETH. 

127.  To  preserve  the  teeth,  they  must  be  kept  clean.     After 
eating  food,  they  should  be  cleaned  with  a  brush  and  water,  or 
•rubbed  with  a  piece  of  soft  flannel,  to  prevent  the  tartar  col 
lecting,  and  to  remove  the  pieces  of  food  that  may  have  lodged 
between  them. 

128.  Tooth-picks  may  be  useful  in  removing  any  particles 
inaccessible  to  the  brush.     Thry  may  be  made  of  bone,  ivory, 
or  the  common  goose-quill.     Metallic  tooth-picks  should  not  be 
used,  as  they  injure  the  enamel. 

129.  The  whole  mouth  should  be  washed  with  pure,  tepid 
water,  at  night,  as  well  as  in  the  morning,  after  which  the  teeth 
should  be  brushed  upward  and  downward,  both  on  the  posterior 
and  anterior  surfaces.     It   may  be    beneficial   to   use  refined 
soap  once  or  twice  every  week,  to  remove  any  corroding  sub- 
stance that  may  exist  around  the  teeth,  care  being  taken  to 
thoroughly  rinse  the  mouth  after  its  use. 

12-5.  Give  another  use  of  these  organs.  126.  Do  they  contribute  to  the 
symmetry  of  the  lower  part  of  the  face  ?  127 — 132.  Give  the  hygiene  of  the. 
tteth.  127.  By  what  means  can  the  teeth  be  preserved  ?  128.  What  is  said 
of  the  use  of  tooth-picks  ?  129.  How  often  should  the  teeth  be  brushed  : 


46  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY,   AND    HYGIENE. 

130.  Food  or  drink  should  not  be  taken  into  the  mouth  when 
very  hot  or  very  cold.     Sudden  changes  of  temperature  will 
rrack  the  enamel,  and,  finally,  produce  decayed  teeth. 

Observation.  On  this  account,  smoking  is  pernicious,  be- 
cause the  teeth  are  Subjected  to  an  alternate  inhalation  of  both 
cold  and  warm  air. 

131.  Care  should  be  taken,  in  childhood,  that  the  temporary 
teeth  be  removed  as  soon  as  they  become  loose,  in  order  that  the 
second  set  of  teeth  may  present  a  regular  and  beautiful  appear- 
ance.    If  a  permanent  tooth  makes  its  appearance  before  the 
first  is  removed,  or  has  become  loose,  the  milk-tooth,  although 
not  loose,  should  be  removed  without  delay. 

132.  If  the  teeth  are  crowded  and  irregular,  in  consequence 
of  the  jaw  being  narrow  and  short,  or  when  they  press  so  hard 
upon  each  other  as  to  injure  the  enamel,  remove  one  or  more, 
to  prevent  their  looking  unsightly  and  irregular,  and  in  a  few 
months,  the  remaining  teeth,  with  a  little  care,  will  fill  the 
spaces. 

Observations.  1st.  It  is  not  always  necessary  to  have  teetft 
extracted  when  they  ache.  The  nerve  may  be  diseased,  and 
the  tooth  still  be  sound. 

2d.  When  it  is  necessary  to  have  decayed  teeth  filled,  it  is 
better  for  the  health  of  the  person  and  durability  of  the  teeth, 
to  have  them  filled  with  gold  foil. 

130.  What  is  the  cause  of  decayed  teeth  ?  Why  is  smoking  injurious 
to  the  teeth?  131.  What  remarks  respecting  the  temporary  teeth? 
132.  Give  other  remarks  in  regard  to  the  temporary  teeth.  Give  obser- 
vation 1st.  Observation  2d. 


ANATOMY    OF   THE    DIGESTIVE    ORGANS. 


47 


CHAPTER     X. 


DIGESTIVE    ORGANS. 

133.  THE  food,  whether  animal  or  vegetable,  has  no  resem- 
blance to  the  bones,  muscles,  and  other  parts  of  the  body  to 
which  it  gives  sustenance.  It  must  undergo  certain  essential 
alterations  before  it  can  become  a  part  of  the  different  struc- 
tures of  the  body.  The  first  change  is  effected  by  the  action 
of  the  Digestive  Organs. 

ANATOMY  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS 
Fig.  32. 


Fig  32.  A  view  of  the  salivary  glands  in  their  proper  situations.  1,  The  pmrotid 
gland.  2,  Its  duct.  3,  The  submaxillary  gland.  4,  Its  duct.  5,  The  sublingual 
gland,  brought  to  view  by  the  removal  of  a  section  of  the  lower  jaw. 

133.  Has  animal  or  vegetable  food  any  resemblance  to  the  different  parts 
of  the  body  to  which  it  gives  sustenance  ?  By  what  organs  is  the  first 
ehange  in  the  food  effected  ?  Describe  fig.  32 


48  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,   AND   HYGIENE. 

134.  The  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  are  the  Mouth,   Teeth,  Sal  i  • 
va-ry    Glands,  Phar'ynx,    (E-soph'a-gus,    (gullet,)     Stomach 
ln-tes' tines,    (bowels,)    Lac'te-als,    (milk   or   chyle    vessels,) 
Tlio-rac'ic  Duct,  Liv'er,  and  the  Pan'cre-as,  (sweetbread.) 

135.  The  MOUTH  is  an  irregular  cavity,  which  contains  the 
teeth  and  the  organs  of  taste. 

136.  The  SALIVARY  GLANDS*  are    six    in    number;    three 
on  each   side  of  the  jaw.      They  are   called    the  pa-rot1  id 
the  sub-max'il-la-ry,  and  the  sub-lin' gual.     (Fig.  32.) 

137.  The  PHARYNX  is  a  muscular,  membranous  sac,  that  leadg 
to  the  oesophagus. 

Fig.  33. 


Pig.  33.  A  side  view  of  the  face,  oesophagus,  and  trachea.  1,  2,  The  trachea 
(wind-pipe)  and  larynx.  3,  The  oesophagus.  4,  4,  4.  The  muscles  of  the  upper  por 
lion  of  the  oesophagus,  forming  the  pharynx.  5,  The  muscles  of  the  cheek.  6,  The 
muscle  that  surrounds  the  mouth.  7,  The  muscle  that  forms  the  floor  of  the  mouth 


See  paragraph  234. 


134 — 147.  Give  the  anatomy  of  the  digestive  organs.  134.  Name  the 
digestive  organs.  135.  Describe  the  mouth.  136.  Describe  the  salivaiy 
glands.  137.  What  is  the  pharynx  ?  What  does  fig.  33  represent  ? 


ANATOMY    OF    THE    DIGESTIVE    OBGA-NS  4U 

138  The  CESOPHAGTJS  is  a.  large,  membranous  tube,  through 
which  the  food  and  drink  pass  into  the  stomach. 

139.  The  STOMACH*  is  in  the  left  side  of  the  body,  below 
the  lungs  and  heart.  It  is  composed  of  three  coats,  or  mem- 
branes, which  are  thin  and  yielding.  The  external  is  called 
the  se'rons ;  the  middle,  mus'cu-lar ;  the  inner,  mu'cous. 

Illustration.  The  three  coats  of  the  stomach  (anatomically 
resemble  tripe,  which  is  a  preparation  of  the  largest  stomach 
of  the  cow  or  ox.  The  outer  coat  is  smooth  and  highly 
polished.  The  middle  coat  is  composed  of  minute  threads, 
which  are  arranged  in  two  layers.  The  fibres  of  these  layers 
cross  each  other.  The  inner  coat  is  soft,  and  presents  many 
Mds,  usually  called  "  the  honey-comb." 

Fig.  34. 


Fig.  34.  The  inner  surface  of  the  stomach  and  duodenum.  1,  The  lower  portion 
of  the  oesophagus.  2,  The  opening  through  which  the  food  is  passed  into  the  stomach 
3,  The  stomach.  9,  The  opening  through  which  the  food  passes  out  of  the  stomach 
into  the  duodenum,  or  upper  portion  of  the  small  intestine.  10,  11,  14,  The  duode- 
num. 12,  13,  Ducts  through  which  bile  and  pancreatic  fluid  pass  into  it.  «,  », «,  The 
three  coats  of  the  stomach. 


*  For  situation  of  the  stomach,  &c.,  see  fig.  53. 

138.  What  is  the  oesophagus  ?     139.  Where  is  the  stomach  situated? 
How  many  coats  has  it  ?    Name  them.    What  article  prepared  for  fooct 
does  the  stomach  resemble  in  structure  ?    Explain  fig.  34. 
5 


50  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

140.  The  INTESTINES,  or  alimentary  canal,  are  divided  ink' 
two  parts,  the  small  and  large.  The  small  intestine  is  about 
twenty-five  feet  in  length.  The  upper  and  most  important 
division  is  called  the  Du-o-de'num.  The  large  intestine  is 
about  five  feet  in  length.  The  largest  division  is  called  the 
'Co'lon. 

9  141.  The  DUODENUM  (called  by  nurses  the  second  stomach) 
is  the  most  essential  part  of  the  small  intestine.  It  is  about 
twelve  inches  in  length,  and  commences  at  the  lower  orifice  of 
the  stomach. 

Fig.  35. 


Fig  35.    1, 1,  The  duodenum.    2,  2,  The  small  intestine.    3,  The  connection  « i 
Ihe  small  and  large  intestine.    4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  The  large  intestine.    6,  7,  8,  9,  TL. 


14A  How  are  the  intestines  divided  ?  What  is  the  length  of  the  small 
intestine  ?  What  is  its  largest  division  called  ?  What  is  the  length  of  the 
large  intestine  ?  What  is  its  largest  division  called  ?  141  Describe  the 
duodenum.  Explain  fig.  35. 


ANATOMY    OF    THE    DIGESTIVE    ORGANS. 


61 


142.  The  LACTEALS  are  minute  vessels,  which  open  upon  the 
mucous  surface  of  the  small  intestine.  From  the  intestine 
they  pass  through  small  glands,  (mes-en-ter'ic,)  to  the  thoracic 
duct. 

Fig.  36. 


Fig.  30.  A  portion  of  the  small  intestine,  lacteal  vessels,  mesenteric  gland:?,  and 
thoracic  duct.  1,  The  ir.iestine.  2,  3,  4,  Mesenteric  glands,  through  which  the 
! n  -  i!s  pass  to  the  Iho-icic  ducL  5,  6,  The  thoracic  duct.  7,  The  point  in  the  neck 
win-re  it  turns  down  to  enter  the  vein  at  8.  9,  JO,  The  aorta.  11,  12,  Vessels  of  the 
n-  <  k.  13,  14,  15.  The  large  veins  that  convey  the  blood  and  chyle  to  tlie  In-art 
17,  17,  The  spinal  column.  18,  The  diaphragm,  (midriff.) 

1*2.  What  are  lacteals  ?  Through  what  do  they  pass  as  they  proceed  tc 
the  thoracic  duct  ?  Describe  fig.  36. 


i>2  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,   AND   HYGIENE. 

143.  The  THORACIC  DUCT  commences  behind  the  liver,  and 
ascends  in  front  of  the  spinal  column.     At  the  lower  part  of 
the  neck,  it  turns  downward  and  forward,  and  pours  its  con- 
tents into  the  vein  behind  the  collar-bone.     (8,  fig.  36.)     This 
duct  is  equal  in  diameter  to  a  goose-quill. 

144.  The  LIVER  is  in  the  right  side  of  the  body,  below  the 
right  lung.     On  the  under  side  of  this  organ  is  a  small  sac, 
which  contains  a  yellow,  bitter  fluid,  called  bile,  (gall.) 

Observation.  The  bile  does  not  flow  into  the  healthy  stomacK 
but  into  the  duodenum.  With  many  persons,  the  imagination  is 
bilious,  not  the  stomach. 

145.  The -PANCREAS  is  a  long,  flattened  organ,  situated  be- 
hind and  below  the  stomach.     From  it  there  flows  a  fluid  into 
the  duodenum,  called  pan-cre-at'ic  juice. 

Observation.  A  good  idea  of  the  liver,  pancreas,  and  intes- 
tines can  be  obtained  by  examining  these  parts  of  a  pig.  In 
this  animal,  the  sacs  or  pouches  of  the  large  intestine  are  well 
defined. 

146.  The  SPLEEN,  (milt,)  so  called   because   the  ancients 
supposed  it  to  be  the  seat  of  melancholy,  is  an  oblong,  flattened 
organ,  situated  in  the  left  side,  in  contact  with  the  stomach  and 
pancreas.     Its  use  is  not  well  determined. 

147.  The  OMENTTJM  (caul)  is  composed  of  adipose  matter, 
(fat,)  deposited  between  layers  of  serous   membrane.     It   is 
attached  to  the  stomach,  and  lies  on  the  anterior  surface  of  the 
intestines.     In  some  persons  of  gross  habits,  this  deposit  is  very 
great. 

143.  Describe  the  course  of  the  thoracic  duct.  What  is  its  size  ? 
144.  Describe  the  liver.  What  is  found  upon  its  under  surface  ?  Give  ob- 
servation. 145.  Describe  the  pancreas.  How  may  an  idea  of  the  liver  be 
obtained  ?  146.  Describe  the  spleen.  Is  its  use  well  known  ?  147.  De- 
scribe the  ornentum. 


PHYSIOLOGY    OP   THE   DIGESTIVE    ORGANS.  53 


CHAPTER     XI. 

PHYSIOLOGY    OF    THE    DIGESTIVE    ORGANS. 

• 

148.  SUBSTANCES  received  into  the  stomach  as  food,  mus\ 
necessarily  undergo   many  changes  before  they  are  fitted  to 
form  part  of  the  animal  body.     The  solid  portions  are  reduced 
to  a  fluid  state,  and  those  parts  that  will  nourish  the 'body  are 
separated  from  the  waste  material. 

149.  The  first  change  in  the  food  is  made  in  the  mouth,  by 
the  teeth,  and  the  sa-li'va  (spittle)  from  the  salivary  glands. 
The  teeth  divide,  while  the  saliva  moistens  and  softens  the  food, 
so  that,  when  carried  into  the  pharynx,  it  is  passed,  with  ease, 
through  the  oesophagus  into  the  stomach. 

150.  In  swallowing,  the  food  is  pressed  by  the  contraction 
of  the  muscles  5,  6,  7,  (fig.  33,)  into  the  pharynx,  from  which 
it  is  carried   into   the  oesophagus,  by  the  contraction  of  the 
muscles  4, 4, 4.     As  soon  as  the  food  is  received  into  this  tube, 
its  muscular  coat  contracts  upon  it  successively  from  above 
downward,  and  the  alimentary  ball  is  pressed  onward  into  the 
stomach. 

Observation.  The  process-of  swallowing,  or  deglutition,  is 
easily  observed,  when  a  person  passes  either,  liquid  or  solid 
food  into  the  stomach. 

151.  The  next  change  in  the  food  is  in  the  stomach.     The 
coats  of  the  stomach  contract,  and  the  food  is   moved  around, 
while,  at  the  same  time,  a  peculiar  fluid   is  supplied  by  the 

148 — 159.  Give  the  use  of  the  digestive  organs.  148.  What  is  necessary 
before  food  can  nourish  the  body  ?  149.  Describe  the  first  change  in  the 
food.  150.  Give  the  process  by  which  the  food  is  passed  into  the  stomach. 
How  may  the  process  of  swallowing  be  observed  ?  151.  Where  is  the 
second  change  in  the  food  effected  ?  How  is  it  done  ? 
r,  * 


54  ANATOMY;    PHYSIOLOGY,   AND   HYGIEN*, 

stomach,  called  gastric  juice,  which  mixes  with  the  food,  and 
reduces  it  to  a  soft,  pulpy  mass,  called  chyme. 

152.  This  pulpy,  grayish  substance  is  passed  into  the  duo- 
denum, and,  by  the  action  of  the  bile  and  pancreatic  juice,  it  is 
changed  into  two  parts  —  a  milk-like  substance,  called  chyle ; 
and  re-sid'u-um,  or  waste  matter. 

153.  The  chyle  and  residuum  pass  from  the  duodenum  into 
the  remaining  portion-  of  the  small  intestine,  and  are  moved 
along  by  a  worm-like  action  of  its  parts. 

154.-  As  these  two  substances  are  moved  along  the  intestine, 
the  chyle  is  sucked  up  by  the  lacteal  vessels,*  that  pass  through 
the  small  intestine,  and  the  residuum  is  carried  into  the  large 
intestine,  and  excreted  from  the  system. 

155.  To  recapitulate  :     In  the  adaptation  of  the  food  to  the 
wants  of  the   body,  it  is  subjected  to  five  different  changes. 
1st.    It  is  changed  in  the  mouth,  by  the  action  of  the  teeth  and 
saliva.     This  is  called  mastication. 

156.  2d.  By  the  action  of  the  stomach  and  gastric  juice,  it 
is  changed  into  a  pulpy,  homogeneous  mass.     This  is  called 
chymification. 

157.  3d.  In  the  duodenum,  the  bile  and  pancreatic  juice 
change  the  chyme  into  chyle.     This  is  called  chylijication. 

158.  4th.  By  the  action  of  the  lacteal  vessels  and  thoracic 
duct,  the  chyle  is  poured  into  a  vein  behind  the  collar-bone, 
and  passes  through  the  heart  to  the  lungs  ;  here,  by  the  action 
of  the  air,  it  becomes  Hood.     (See  Chap  XX.) 

159.  5th.  The  separation  and  excretion  of  the  residuum. 


*  The  chyle  is  changed  by  the  lacteals  and  mesenteric  glands,  but 
the  nature  of  this  change  is  not,  as  yet,  well  defined  or  understood. 

152.  What  becomes  of  this  pulpy  substance  ?  What  change  is  effected 
in  the  duodenum  ?  153.  Where  do  the  chyle  and  residuum  then  pass  r 
154.  What  becomes  of  the  chyle  ?  Of  the  residuum  ?  155.  Recapitulate 
the  five  changes  in  the  digestive  process. 

Note.  Let  the  pupil  review  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  digestive 
organs,  from  figs.  36  and  37,  or  from  outline  anatomical  plate  5. 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF    THE    DIGESTIVE    ORGANS. 


Fig.  37. 


Fig.  37.  An  ideal  view  of  the  organs  of  digestion,  opened  nearly  the  whole  lengtli. 
I,  The  upper  jaw.  2,  The  lower  jaw.  3,  TJie  tongue.  4,  The  roof  of  the  mouth. 
5  The  oesophagus.  6,  The  trachea.  7,  The  parotid  gland.  8,  The  aublingual  gland. 
9,  The  stomach.  10,  10,  The  liver.  11,  The  gall-cyst,  or  sac.  12,  The  duct  thai 
conveys  the  bile  to  the  duodenum,  (13,  13.)  14,  The  pancreas.  15,  15,  15,  15,  The 
small  intestine.  16,  The  opening  of  the  small  intestine  into  the  large  intestine 
17,  18,  19,  20,  The  large  intestine.  21,  The  spleen.  22,  The  upper  part  of  the  spinal 
column. 


56  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER    XII. 

f 

HYGIENE    OP    THE    DIGESTIVE    ORGANS. 

160.  THE  perfection  of  the  digestive  process,  as  well  as  the 
health  of  the  body,  requires  the  observance  of  certain  condi- 
tions.    These  will  be  considered  under  four  heads.      1st.  The 
quantity    of    food    that    should    be    taken.      2d.    Its    quality. 
3d.   The  manner  in  which  it  should  be  taken.     4th."  The  con- 
dition of  the  system  when  food  is  taken. 

161.  The  QUANTITY  of  food  necessary  for  the  system  varies. 
Although  many  things  may  aid  us  in  determining  the  quantity 
of  food  proper  for  an  individual,  yet  there  is  no  certain  guide* 
in  all  cases.     Age,  occupation,  habits,  temperament,  tempera- 
ture, health,  and  disease,  all  exert  an  influence. 

162.  The    child   and   youth   require  food  to  promote  the 
growth  of  the  bones,  muscles,  and  the  different  parts  of  the 
body.     The  more  rapid  the  growth  of  the  child,  the  greater  the 
demand  for  food.     This  accounts  for  the  keen  appetite  and 
vigorous  digestion  in  childhood. 

163.  Food  is  necessary  to  repair  the  waste  which  attends 
the  functions  of  the  different  organs.     The  waste  is  greatest 
when  we  exercise  most.     For  this  reason,  when  we  increase 
our  exercise  or  labor,  the   quantity  of  food  may  be  increased; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  when  we  change  from  an  active  em- 

160—186.  Give  the  hygiene  of  the  digestive  organs.  160.  What  does  the 
perfection  of  the  digestive  process  require  ?  161.  Can  the  quantity  of 
food  proper  for  an  individual  be  determined  in  all  cases  ?  What  exert  an 
influence  on  the  quantity  necessary  for  the  body  ?  162.  At  what  age  is  the 
appetite  keen  and  the  digestion  vigorous  ?  Why  ?  163.  Give  another  de- 
mand for  food.  When  is  the  waste  greatest  ?  When  should  the  amoun' 
of  food  be  lessened  ? 


HYGIENE    OF    THE    DIGESTIVE    ORGANS.  57 

ployment  to  one  less  active  in  character,  the  food  should  be 
diminished  in  nearly  the  same  degree  that  the  exercise  is 
lessened. 

164.  When  the  girl  leaves  the  active  household  employ- 
ments for  the  shop  of  the  dress-maker,  —  when  the  boy  leaves 
the  farm  for   the  school-room,  —  the  amount  of  food  should 
be  diminished  as  soon  as  the  sedentary  employment  is  com- 
menced ;  for,  under  such  circumstances,  the  appetite  will  not 
guide  correctly. 

Observation.  It  is  a  common  observation,  that  in  academies 
and  colleges,  the  older  students  from  the  country,  who  have 
been  accustomed  to  hard  manual  labor,  suffer  more  frequently 
from  defective  digestion  and  impaired  health  than  the  younger 
and  feebler  students  from  the  larger  towns  or  cities. 

165.  The  food  aids  in  supporting  the  warmth  of  the  body. 
This  is  the  reason  why  the  appetite  for  food  is  keener  in  the 
winter  than  in  the  summer.     It  follows,  then,  that  the  system 
reqoires  more  food  in  cold  than  in  hot  weather. 

Observatio?is.  1st.  Well-clothed  children  require  less  food 
in  cold  weather  than  those  thinly  dressed.  2d.  Flocks  and 
herds  that  are  sheltered  in  winter,  will  eat  one  third  less  than  if 
exposed  to  the  inclemency  of  the  weather ;  hence  it  is  true 
economy  to  keep  the  inferior  animals  warm,  as  well  as  children. 

166.  In   all   instances,  the   quantity  of  food   should   have 
reference    to   the  present  condition  of  the  digestive    organs. 
If  they  are  weakened  or  diseased,  so  that  but  a  small  quantity 
of  food  can  be  properly  digested  or  changed,  that  amount  only 
should  be  taken.     Food  does  not  invigorate  the  system,  except 
it  is  changed,  as  has  been  described  in  Chap.  XI. 

167.  The  QUALITY  of  the  food  best  adapted  to  the  wants  of 

164.  When  will  not  the  appetite  guide  correctly  ?  What  observation  re- 
specting those  students  that  have  been  accustomed  to  hard  manual  labor  ? 
165.  Why  is  the  appetite  for  food  keener  in  the  winter  than  in  the  summer  ? 
Give  observation  1st.  Observation  2d.  166.  Why  should  the  present 
condition  of  the  digestive  organs  be  regarded  in  reference  to  the  quantity 
of  food?  167.  On  what  does  the  quality  of  food  adapted  to  the  wants  of 
f.he  system  depend  * 


b8  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY.    AND    HYGIENE. 

the  system  depends  upon  the  season,  climate,  age,  &c.,  of 
a  person.  Like  the  quantity  necessary  for  an  individual,  there 
can  be  no  fixed  law. 

168.  The  kind  of  food  which  is  eaten  should  be  adapted  to 
the  distensible  character  of  the  stomach  and  alimentary  canal. 
Hence  the  food  should  contain  nutritious  and  innutritious  mat- 
ter —  nutritious,  to  promote  the  growth  and  repair  the  waste  of 
the  system ;  and  innutritious,  to  distend  both  the  stomach  and 
alimentary  canal.     Consequently,  hot  flour  bread,  rich  pies,  and 
jellies,  are  not  so  good  articles  for  food,  as  the  unbolted  wheat 
bread,  ripe  fruits,  and  berries. 

169.  The  influence  of  season  and  climate  should  be  consid* 
cred  in  selecting  food.     Food  of  a  highly  stimulating  character 
may  be  used  almost  with  impunity,  during  the  cold  weather  of 
a  cold  climate,  but  in  the  warm  season,  and  in  a  warm  climate, 
it  would  be  very  injurious.     Animal  food,  being  more  stimu- 
lating than  vegetable,  can  be  eaten  in  the  winter ;  but  vegetable 
food  should  be  used  more  freely  in  the  spring  and  sum  me*. 

Observation.  By  abstaining  from  meats  and  stimulating 
drinks  in  warm  weather,  and  living  on  nutritious,  unstimulating 
food,  the  "  season  "  or  bowel  complaints  may  be,  in  a  great 
degree,  prevented. 

170.  The  age  of  persons  modifies  the  influence  of  food  on  the 
system.     The  organs  of  a  child  are  more  sensitive  and  excita- 
ble than  those  of  a  person  advanced  in   years.      Therefore 
a  vegetable  diet  would  be  most  appropriate  for  a  child,  while 
stimulating  animal  food  might  be  conducive  to  the  health  of  an 
aged  person. 

.  171.  The  MANNER  in  which  food  should  be  taken  is  of  much 
practical  importance ;  upon  it  the  health  of  the  digestive 
organs  depends. 

168.  What  should  all  substances  used  for  food  contain  ?  Why  ? 
169.  Should  the  season  of  the  year  influence  us  in  selecting  food  ?  Give 
observation.  170.  What  kind  of  food  is  adapted  to*  the  organs  of  the  child  ? 
Why  ?  What  kind  to  a  person  advanced  in  life  ?  Why  ?  171.  What  is 
said  of  the  manner  of  taking  food  ? 


HYGIENE    OF    THE    DIGESTIVE    OBJAN3.  59 

172.  Food  should  be  taken  at  regular  periods.  The  interval 
between  meals  should  be  regulated  by  the  kind  of  food,  the 
age,  health,  exercise,  and  habits  of  the  individual.  Children  re- 
quire food  more  frequently  than  adults ;  yet,  strict  regularity  and 
punctuality  should  be  observed  in  regard  to  their  times  of  eating. 
•  173.  Food  should  not  be  taken  too  frequently.  If  food  is 
taken  before  the  stomach  has  regained  its  tone  and  energy  by 
repose,  or  before  the  digestion  of  the  preceding  meal  has  been 
completed,  not  only  will  the  action  of  the  stomach  be  imperfect, 
but  the  food  partially  digested  becomes  mixed  with  that  last  taken, 
inducing  irritation  or  disease.  In  general,  an  adult  should  allow 
six  hours  to  intervene  between  meals. 

174.  Food  should  be  well  masticated,  or  chewed.     All-  solid 
food  should  be  reduced  to  a  state  of  comparative  fineness,  by  the 
teeth,  before  it  is  swallowed ;  the  gastric  fluid  of  the  stomach 
will  then  blend  with  it  more  readily,  and  act  more  vigorously 
in  reducing  it  to  chyme. 

175.  Mastication  should   be  moderate,  not  rapid  ;  for  the 
salivary  glands  are  excited  to  action  in  chewing,  and  some  time 
must  elapse  before  they  can  secrete  saliva  in  sufficient  quantities 
to  moisten  the  food. 

176.  Food  should   be   masticated   and   swallowed   without 
drink.     As  the  salivary  glands  supply  fluid  to  moisten  the  dry 
food,  the  use  of  tea,  coffee,  water,  or  any  other  fluid,  is  not 
demanded  by  nature's  laws  while  taking  a  meal. 

Observation.  Were  it  customary  not  to  place  drinks  on  the 
table  until  the  solid  food  is  eaten,  the  evil  arising  from  drinking 
too  much  at  meals  would  be  obviated. 

177.  The   CONDITION  of  the   system   should   be   regarded 
when  food  is  taken. 

172.  How  should  food  be  taken?  How  should  the  intervals  between 
meals  be  regulated  ?  What  should  be  observed  in  giving  food  to  children  ? 
173.  What  is  the  effect  if  food  is  taken  too  frequently  ?  174.  Why  should 
food  be  well  masticated  ?  175.  Why  should  we  not  eat  rapidly  ?  176.  Why 
do  we  not  require  drink  while  chewing  our  food  ?  177.  Should  the  con- 
dition of  the  system  be  regarded  when  food  i<*  taken  ? 


O'O  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

178.  Food  should  not  be  taken  immediately  after  severe  exer 
lion,  either  of  the  body  or  mind  ;  for  all  organs  in  action  require 
and  receive  more  blood  and  nervous  fluid,  than  when  at  rest. 

Observation.  The  practice  of  students  and  accountants 
going  immediately  from  severe  mental  labor  to  their  meals,  is 
a  pernicious  one,  and  a  fruitful  cause  of  indigestion. and  metftal 
debility.  The  custom  of  farmers  and  mechanics  hurrying 
from  their  toil  to  the  dinner-table,  "  to  save  time,"  —  which,  to 
say  the  least,  is  poor  economy,  —  does  much  to  cause  dyspepsia 
among  these  classes  in  community. 

179.  Severe  mental  or  physical  labor  should  not  be  entered 
upon  immediately  after  eating.      The  amount  of  blood  and 
nervous  fluid  supplied  to  the   stomach  and  alimentary  canal 
during  the  digestion  of  food  is  increased,  and  a  deficiency  con- 
sequently exists  in  other  organs.     If  the  blood  is  diverted  from 
the  stomach  to  the  limbs  or  brain  by  active  exertion,  it  will  not 
only  cause  disease  of  the  digestive  organs,  but  chyle  will  not  be 
formed,  to  nourish  the  system.  , 

180.  Pure  air  is  necessary  to  give  a  keen  appetite  and  vigor- 
ous digestion.     The  digestive  organs  not  only  need  the  stimulus 
of  blood,  but  they  absolutely  need  the  influence  of  pure  blood 
which  cannot   exist  in  the  system,    except  when  we  breathe 
pure  air. 

Illustration.  A  manufacturer  stated  before  a  committee  of 
the  British  parliament,  that  he  removed  an  arrangement  for 
ventilating  his  mill,  because  he  noticed  that  his  men  ate  much 
more  after  his  mill  was  ventilated  than  previous  to  admitting 
fresh  air  into  the  rooms.  The  apology  for  removing  the  venti- 
lators was,  that  he  could  not  afford  to  have  them  breathe 
oure  air. 


178.  Why  should  not  food  be  taken  after  severe  exertion  ?     What  is  one 
cause  of  indigestion  among  students  and  accountants  ?     What  is  said  o 
farmers   and    mechanics    hurrying  from   their    toil  to    the   dinner-table  ? 
179.  Why  should  not  severe  exertion  be  made  immediately  after  eating  f 
ISO.  What  effect  has  pure  air  on  digestion  ?     Give  illustration. 


HYGIENE    OF    THE    DIGESTIVE    ORGAN  b.  61 

181.  Persons  should   abstain  from   eating,  at   least   three 
hours  before  retiring  for  sleep.     It  is  no  unusual  occurrence 
for  those  persons  who  have  eaten  heartily  immediately  before 
retiring  for  sleep,  to  have  unpleasant  dreams,  or  to  be  aroused 
from  their  unquiet  slumber  by  colic  pains. 

Illustration.  A  healthy  farmer,  who  was  in  the  habit  of 
eating  one  fourth  of  a  mince  pie  immediately  before  going  to 
bed,  became  annoyed  with  unpleasant  dreams,  and,  among  the 
varied  images  of  his  fancy,  he  saw  that  of  his  deceased  father. 
Becoming  alarmed,  he  consulted  a  physician,  who,  after  a 
patient  hearing  of  the  case,  gravely  advised  him  to  eat  half  of  a 
mince  pie,  assuring  him  that  he  would  then  see  his  grandfather. 

182.  When  the  general  system  and  digestive   organs   a*°e 
enfeebled,  mild,  ujistimulating  food,  in  small  quantities,  should 
be  given.     In  the    instance   of  a  shipwrecked  and    famished 
mariner,   or  a  patient  recovering   from  disease,  but  a  small 
quantity  of  nourishment  should  be  given  at  a  time. 

183.  Water  and  most  fluids  are  removed  from  the  stomach 
in  a  very  few  minutes,  by  the  action  of  the  veins.     In  instances 
of  great  feebleness,  the  body  can  be  strengthened  sooner  by 
liquid  than  by  solid  food. 

184.  When  travelling  in  coaches  or  cars,  the  stomach  is  not 
in  a  state  to  digest  large  quantities  of  food.     When  food  is 
taken,  it  should   be  of  the   mildest  character,  and   small   In 
quantity. 

185.  To  prevent  disease,  it  is  as  necessary  that  the  alimen- 
tary canal  be  evacuated  regularly,  as  that  we  take  food  into 
the  stomach  at  regular  periods. 

186.  Sitting,  standing,  and  walking  erect,  aid  in  keeping  the 
digestive  organs  healthy. 

181.  What  is  the  effect  gf  eating  immediately  before  retiring  for  sleep  ? 
How  is  this  illustrated  in  the  case  of  a  healthy  farmer  ?  182.  How  should 
food  be  given  when  both  the  digestive  organs  and  general  system  are  c  n 
feebled  ?  183.  Which  are  introduced  into  the  system  soonest,  fluids  or 
solid  food  ?  184.  What  is  said  in  regard  to  food  while  we  are  travelling 
18*3.  What  position  of  the  body  aids  digestion  > 

6 


62  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,   AND    HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

THE    CIRCULATORY    ORGANS. 

187.  THE  blood  is  distributed  to  every  part  of  the  system. 
There  is  no  part  so  minute,  that  it  does  not  receive  this  circu- 
lating fluid.     This  distribution  is  effected  by  the  agency  of  the 
Hearty  Ar'te-ries,  Veins,  and  Cap'il-la-ries. 

ANATOMY    OF    THE    CIRCULATORY    ORGANS. 

* 

188.  The  HEART  is  situated  in  the  chest,  between  the  lungs. 
(Fig.  53.)     It  is  a  double  organ,  or  has  two  sides,  called  right 
and    left,  which   are   separated    by   a   muscular   sep'tum,    or 
partition. 

189.  Each  side  of  the  heart  has  two  cavities.     The  upper 
cavity  is  called  the  au'rl-de,  (deaf  ear.)     The  lower  cavity  is 
calfed  the  ven'tri-cle.     These  cavities  are  separated  from  each 
other  by  folds  of  membrane,  called  valves.     (Fig.  38.) 

190.  Between  the  auricle  and  ventricle  of  the  right  side  of 
the  heart,  there  are  three  valves,  called  tri-cus'pid.     Between 
the  auricle  and  ventricle  of  the  left  side  of  the  heart,  there  are 
two  valves,  called  mi'tral. 

Observation.  To  obtain  a  clear  idea  of  the  heart  and  its 
valves,  it  is  recommended  to  examine  this  part  of  an  ox  or 
calf.  In  order  that  each  ventricle  be  opened  without  muti- 

187.  What  is  said  of  the  distribution  of  the  blood  ?  How  is  it  effected  > 
188 — 196-  Give  the  anatomy  of  the  circulatory  organs.  188.  Describe  the 
heart.  189.  How  many  cavities  has  it  ?  What  is  the  upper  cavity  called  ? 
What  is  the  lower  cavity  called?  How  are, these  cavities  separated: 
190.  How  many  valves  between  the  right  auricle  and  ventricle,  and  what  are 
they  called  ?  How  many  valves  between  the  left  auricle  and  ventricle,  and 
what  are  they  called  ?  How  can  an  idea  of  the  heart  be  obtained  ? 


ANATOMY    OF    THE    CIRCULATORY    ORGANS.  M 

iating  the  parts  that  compose  its  internal  structure,  cut  on  each 
side  of  the  septum  parallel  to  it.  This  may  be  easily  found 
between  the  ventricles,  as  they  differ  in  thickness. 

191.  The  ARTERIES  are  the  vessels  that  carry  the  blood  from 
the  heart.  The  right  ventricle  of  the  heart  gives  rise  to  the 
pul'mo-na-ry  artery  ;  the  left  ventricle  to  a  large  artery,  called 
the  a-ort'a.  At  the  commencement  of  both  of  these  vessels 
are  valves,  and  from  their  shape,  they  are  called  sem-l-lu'nar 


Fig.  38.  1,  The  descending  vein.  2,  The  ascending  vein.  3,  The  right  auricle. 
4,  The  opening  between  the  right  auricle  and  the  right  ventricle.  5,  The  right  ven- 
tricle. 6,  The  tricuspid  valves.  7,  The  pulmonary  artery.  8,  8,  The  branches  ol 
the  pulmonary  artery  that  pass  to  the  right  and  left  lung.  9,  The  semilunar  valves  of 
the  pulmonary  artery.  10,  The  division  between  the  two  ventricles  of  the  heart. 
11,  11,  The  pulmonary  veins.  12,  The  left  auricle.  13,  The  opening  between  the 
left  auricle  and  ventricle.  14,  The  left  ventricle.  15,  The  mitral  valves.  16,  16,  The 
a  »rta.  17,  The  semilunar  valves  of  the  aorta. 

Observation.     The  parts  of  the  circulatory  organs  most  liable 
to  disease  are  the  valves  of  the  heart,  particularly  the  mitral. 

191.  What  are  arteries  ?  Where  does  the  pulmonary  artery  take  its 
rise  ?  The  aorta  ?  What  valves  at  the  commencement  of  these  vessels  ? 
Describe  fig.  38.  What  parts  of  the  circulatory  organs  are  most  liable  to 
disease  ? 


tvl  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,   AND    HYGIENE. 

When  these   membranous  folds  become  ossified  or  ruptured, 
the  blood  regurgitates,  and  causes  great  distress  in  breathing. 

192.  The  PULMONARY  ARTERY  commences  in  front  of  the 
aorta.  It  ascends  obliquely  to  the  under  surface  of  the  arch  of 
the  aorta,  where  it  divides  into  two  branches,  one  of  which 
passes  to  the  right,  the  other  to  the  left  lung.  This  artery 
conveys  the  dark-colored  or  "venous"  blood  to  the  lungs,  and, 
with  its  corresponding  veins,  establishes  the  pulmonic  circu- 
lation. 

Fig.  39. 


Fig.  39.  t,  The  windpipe.  A,  The  heart,  a,  The  aorta,  p,  The  pulmonary 
artery.  1,  The  branch  of  the  pulmonary  artery  that  divides  in  the  left  lung.  2,  The 
nranch  that  divides  in  the  right  lung. 

The  divisions  of  this  artery  continue  to  divide  and  subdivide,  until  they  become  no 
larger  than  hairs  in  size.  These  minute  vessels  pass  over  the  air-cells,  represented  by 
small  dark  points  around  the  margin  of  the  lungs.. 


192.  Describe  the  pulmonary  artery.  What  is  the  function  of  this 
artery  ?  Explain  fig.  39.  What  is  said  of  the  divisions  of  the  pulmonary 
artery  ? 


ANATOMY    OF    THE    CIRCULATORY    ORGANS. 


65 


193.  The  AORTA  proceeds  from  the  left  ventricle  of  the 
heaitr  and  contains  t£e  pure  or  "arterial"  blood.  This  vessel 
gives  off  branches,  which  divide  and  subdivide  as  they  advance, 
until  they  are  distributed  to  every  part  of  the  body.  This 
artery,  with  its  corresponding  veins,  establishes  the  systemic 

Circulation. 

Fig.  40. 


Fi<_'.  40.    The  aorta  and  its  branches,    a,  The  commencement  01  the  aoita. 

193.  Describe  the  aorta.     What  is  represented  by  fig.  40  ? 
6* 


66 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,   AND    HYGIENE. 


194.  The  VEINS  are  the  vessels  which  return  the  blood  to 
the  auricles  of  the  heart,  after  it  has  been  circulated  by  the 
arteries  through  the  lungs -and  other  parts  of  the  body.     At 
certain  intervals,  they  are  furnished  with  valves,  which  allow 
the  blood  to  flow  toward  the  heart  only.     In  general,  they  are 
nearer  the  surface  of  the  body  than  the  arteries. 

195.  The  CAPILLARIES   constitute  a  microscopic   net-work, 
and  are  so  distributed  through  every  part  of  the  body  as  to  ren- 
der it  impossible  to  introduce  the  smallest  needle  beneath  the 
skin  without  wounding   several  of  these  fine  vessels.     They 
establish  the  communication  between  the  termination  of  the 
arteries  and  the  beginning  of  the  veins. 

196.  The   relation  of  the  capillaries  to   the   arteries   and 
veins,  is  illustrated  by  figs.  41  and  42. 


Fig.  41. 


Fig.  42. 


Fig.  41.  An  ideal  view  of  a  portion  of  the  pulmonic  circulation.  1,  1,  A  brancn 
of  the  artery  that  carries  the  impure  blood  to  the  lungs.  3,  3,  Capillary  vessel*. 
2,  2,  A  vein  through  which  the  red  blood  is  returned  to  the  left  side  of  the  heart. 

Fig.  42.  An  ideal  view  of  a  portion  of  the  systemic  circulation.  1,  1,  A  branch 
of  the  aorta.  This  terminates  in  the  capillaries  3,  3.  2,  2,  A  vein  through  which 
the  impure  blood  is  carried  to  the  right  side  of  the  heart. 

194.  What  are  veins  ?  "With  what  are  they  furnished  ?  195.  What  do 
the  capillaries  constitute  ?  What  do  they  establish  ?  What  does  fig.  41 
represent?  Fig.  42? 


PHYSIOLOGX  OF  THE  CIRCULATORY  ORGANS.       67 

CHAPTER   XIV. 

PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  CIRCULATORY  ORGANS. 

197.  THE  walls  of  all  the  cavities  of  the  heart  are  composed 
of  muscular  fibres,  which  are  endowed  with  the  property  of  con- 
tracting and  relaxing,  like  other  parts  of  the  muscular  system. 
The  contraction  and  relaxation  of  the  muscular  fibres  of  the 
heart  increase  and  diminish  the  size  of  its  cavities. 

198.  The  two  auricles  dilate  at  the  same  instant,  and  also 
contract  at  the  same  instant.     The  two  ventricles  contract,  while 
the  auricles  dilate.      Thus  the  blood  is  forced  from  the  heart  to 
every  part  of  the  body,  and  received  again  on  its  return. 

199.  The  course  of  the  blood  through  the  heart,  arteries, 
and  veins,  may  be  easily  comprehended  by  attention  to  fig.  43, 
which  gives  an  ideal  view  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

200.  The  heart  aids  in  forcing  the  blood  through  the  arte- 
ries, to  the  different  parts  of  the  body.     Every  time  the  heart 
contracts,  there  is  a  "  pulse,"  or  "  pulsation,"  in  the  arteries. 

Experiment.  Apply  the  fingers  upon  the  artery  at  the  wrist, 
at  two  different  points,  about  two  inches  apart ;  if  the  pressure 
be  moderately  made,  the  "pulse"  will  be  felt  at  both  points. 
Let  the  upper  p'oint  be  pressed  firmly,  and  there  will  be  no 
pulsation  at  the  lower  point;  but  make  strong  pressure  upon 
the  lower  point  only,  and  the  pulsation  will  continue  at  the 
upper  point;  proving  that  the  blood  flows  from  the  heart,  in 
the  arteries,  to  different  parts  of  the  system. 

197 — 203.  Give  the  physiology  of  the  circulatory  organs.  197  What  do 
the  contractic  a  and  relaxation  of  the  muscular  walls  of  the  heart  produce  ? 
198.  "What  if  said  of  the  contraction  and  dilatation  of  the  auricles  ?  Of 
the  ventricles  ?  200.  What  causes  the  "pulse,"  or  "pulsation,"  in  the 
arteries?  How  is  it  proved  that  the  blood  flows  from  the  Ixeart  in  the 
arteries  ? 


fo'8  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

201.  The  frequency  of  the  pulse  varies   according  to  the 
age,  sex,  and  degree  of  health.     In  adults,  it  is  usually  from 
seventy  to  seventy-five  "beats"  in  a  minute. 

202.  There  is  no  pulsation  in  the  veins,  and  the  return  of 
the  blood  to  the  heart  through  them  can  be  shown  by  the  fol- 
lowing experiments. 

Experiments.  1st.  Press  firmly  on  one  of  the  veins  upon 
.he  back  of  the  hand,  carrying  the  pressure  toward  the 
fingers ;  for  a  moment  the  vein  will  disappear.  On  removing 
the  pressure  of  the  finger,  it  will  reappear,  from  the  blood 
rushing  in  from  below. 

2d.  If  a  tape  be  tied  around  the  arm  above  the  elbow,  the 
^eins  below  will  become  larger  and  more  prominent,  and  also  a 
greater  number  will  be  brought  in  view.  At  this  time,  apply 
the  finger  at  the  wrist,  and  the  pulsation  of  the  arteries  still 
continues,  showing  that  the  blood  is  constantly  flowing  from 
the  heart,  through  the  arteries,  into  the  veins  ;  and  the  increased 
size  of  the  veins  shows  that  the  pressure  of  the  tape  prevents 
its  flowing  back  to  the  heart. 

203.  From  the  right  ventricle  of  the  heart,  (2,  fig.  43,)  the 
dark,  impure  blood  is  forced  into  the  pulmonary  artery,  (3 ;) 
and  its  branches  (4,  5)  carry  the  blood  to  the  left  and  right 
lung.     In  the   capillary  vessels  (6,  6)  of  the  lungs,  the  blood 
becomes  pure,  or  of  a  red  color,  and  is  returned  to  the  left  auri- 
cle of  the  heart,  (9,)  by  the  veins,  (7,  8.)     From  the  left  auri- 
cle the  pure  blood  passes  into  the  left  ventricle,  (10.)     By  a 
forcible  contraction  of  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart,  the  blood 
is  thrown  into  the  aorta,  (11.)     Its  branches  (12,  13,  13)  carry 
the  pure  blood  to  every  organ,  or  part  of  the  body.      The 
divisions  and  subdivisions  of  the  aorta  terminate  in  capillary 
vessels,  represented    by   14,    14.       In    these  hair-like  vessels 
the  blood  becomes  dark-colored,  and  is  returned  to  the  right 
auricle  of  the  heart,  (1,)  by  the  ve'na  ca'va  de-scen'dens  (15) 
and  ve'na  ca'va  as-cen'dens,  ( 16.)    The  tricuspid  valves  ( 17)  pre- 
vent the  reflow  of  the  blood  from  the  right  ventricle  to  the  right 

201.  "What  -varies  the  frequency  of  the  pulse  ?     202.  Is  there  pulsation 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  CIRCULATORY  ORGANS.  t'w 

•  aide.  The  semilunar  valves  (18)  prevent  the  blood  passing 
horn  the  pulmonary  artery  to  the  right  ventricle.  The  mitral 
valves  (19)  prevent  the  flow  of  blood  from  the  left  ventricle  to 
(he  left  auricle.  The  semilunar  valves  (20)  prevent  the  reflow 
of  blood  from  the  aorta  to  the  left  ventricle. 

Fig.  43. 


bete.    From  fig.  43,  give  the  course  of  the  blood  thiough  the  heart,  arto 
ries,  and  veins,  or  from  anatomical  outline  plates  6  and  7. 


7U  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,   AND   HYGIENE 


CHAPTER    XV. 

HYGIENE    OF    THE    CIRCULATORY    ORGANS. 

204.  The  clothing  should  be  loosely  worn.     To  have  good 
health,  the  blood  must  circulate  freely.     Consequently,  no  arti- 
cle of  apparel  should  be  worn  so  as  to  prevent  a  free  flow  of 
blood  through  every  organ  of  the  body. 

205.  Strings,  bands,  or  belts,  however  narrow,  should  not 
be  worn  so  tightly  as  to  cause  an  indentation  of  the  skin  of  the 
trunk,  or  extremities. 

Observations.  1st.  Inelastic  bands,  worn  upon  the  lower 
extremities,  are  a  frequent  cause  of  enlarged  veins  and  painfu' 
limbs.  2d.  The  fulness  and  the  crimson  tint  of  the  face,  gid 
diness,  fainting,  and  many  derangements  in  the  functions  of 
different  organs,  are  produced  by  pressure  upon  the  blood 
vessels  of  the  trunk. 

206.  The  skin  should  be  kept  clean,  and  every  part  of  an 
equal  temperature.     These  conditions  favor  free  and  vigorous 
circulation. 

Observation.  When  intending  to  ride  in  a  cold  day,  wash 
the  face,  hands,  and  feet,  in  cold  water,  and  rub  them  smartly 
with  a  coarse  towel.  This  is  far  better  than  to  take  spirits  into 
the  stomach,  to  keep  the  extremities  warm. 

207.  Muscular   exercise   is   important    in   maintaining    a 

204 — 214.  Give  the  hygiene  of  the  circulatory  organs.  204.  Why  should 
the  clothing  be  loosely  worn  ?  205.  What  is  said  of  bands  or  belts  ?  What 
is  the  effect  of  wearing  inelastic  bands  upon  the  lower  extremities  ?  What 
is  a  frequent  cause  of  giddiness,  faintness,  and  derangement  of  the  func- 
tions of  many  organs  ?  206.  In  what  condition  should  the  skin  be  kept  ? 
Give  observation.  207.  What  is  the  effect  of  muscular  exercise  upo:i  the 
circulation  of  blood  ? 


HYGIENE    OF   THE    CIRCULATORY    ORGANS.  71 

kca'thy    circulation.     The    muscles,   when    used,   force    the 
blood  more  rapidly  to  and  from  the  heart. 

Illustration.  The  coach-driver  and  teamster  throw  their 
arms  around  their  bodies  to  warm  them,  when  cold ;  because 
the  muscles  that  are  called  into  action  in  swinging  the  arms, 
force  a  greater  quantity  of  blood  into  the  chilled  parts,  and 
more  heat  is  produced. 

208.  Idle  men  and  women,  who  complain  of  cold  feet,  and 
take  "  warming  bitters  "  to  quicken  the  blood,  would  find  them- 
selves warmer  and  more  invigorated  by  calling  the  muscles  into 
action  in  the  mechanic's  shop,  or  the  kitchen,  or  in  some  active 
employment. 

Observation.  In  cold  weather,  when  travelling  in  cars,  the 
feet  will  not  become  chilled  so  readily  when  standing  as  when 
sitting.  Again,  the  feet  will  be  warmer  by  allowing  them  to 
swing,  instead  of  being  supported  the  whole  time,  because  the 
muscles,  called  into  action  in  swinging  them,  increase  the  cir- 
culation of  the  blood. 

209.  The  quality  and  quantity  of  the  blood  modify  the  action 
of  the  heart  and  blood-vessels.     If  this  fluid  is  abundant  and 
pure,  the  circulatory  vessels  act  with  more  energy  than  when 
it  is  deficient  in  quantity  or  defective  in  quality. 

Illustrations.  1st.  In  an  athletic  man,  whose  heart  beats 
forcibly,  and  whose  pulse  is  strong,  if  a  considerable  quantity  of 
blood  is  drawn  from  a  vein,  as  in  bleeding,  the  heart  will  beat 
feebly,  and  the  pulse  will  become  weak. 

2d.  When  the  blood  is  made  impure  by  inhaling  vitiated  air, 
the  action  of  the  heart  and  arteries  is  diminished,  which  pro- 
duces an  effect  similar  to  that  which  takes  place  when  blood  is 
drawn  from  a  vein. 

210.  When  large  blood-vessels   are  wounded   or  cut,  the 

Give  illustration.  208.  What  is  better  for  cold  feet  and  hands  than 
"  warming  bitters  "  ?  Give  observation.  209.  What  effect  have  the  quantity 
and  quality  of  the  blood  upon  the  circulatory  vessels  ?  Give  illustration 
1st.  Illustration  2d.  210.  What  is  necessary  when  large  blood-vessels  are 
vrnunded  or  cut  ? 


72  ANATOMY.,   PHYSIOLOGY,   AND    HYGIENE 

flow  of  blood  must  be  immediately  stopped,  or  the  persou 
vrill  soon  die.  If  a  large  artery  is  wounded,  the  blood  will  be 
thrown  out  in  jets,  or  jerks,  every  time  the  pulse  beats.  The 
flow  of  blood  can  be  stopped  until  a  surgeon  arrives,  either  by 
compressing  the  vessel  between  the  wound  and.  the  heart,  or  by 
compressing  the  end  of  the  divided  artery  in  the  wound. 


Fig.  44. 


Fig.  45. 


Fig.  44.  The  track  of  the  large  artery  of  the  arm.  1,  The  collar-bone.  9,  10,  The 
»arge  artery  of  the  arm. 

F'ig.  45.  B,  The  manner  of  compressing  the  artery  near  the  collar-bone.  A,  The 
manner  of  compressing  the  large  artery  of  the  arm,  with  tho  fingers.  C,  The  manner 
of  compressing  the  divided  extremity  of  an  artery  in  the  wound,  with  a  finger. 

211.  After  making  compression  with  the  fingers,  as  described 
and  illustrated,  take  a  piece  of  cloth  or  handkerchief,  twist  it 
eornerwise,  and  tie  a  hard  knot  midway  between  the  two  ends. 

What  is  shown  by  fig.  44  ?  By  fig.  45  ?  211.  What  is  to  be  done  afte.- 
compressing  the  wound,  as  before  described  ? 


HYGIENE    OF    THE    CIRCULATORY    ORGAWS. 


73 


This  knot  should  be  placed  over  the  artery,  between  the  wound 
and  the  heart,  and  the  ends  carried  around  the  limb  and  loosely 
tied.  A  stick,  five  or  six  inches  long,  should  "be  placed  under 
the  handkerchief,  which  should  be  twisted  until  the  knot  has 
made  sufficient  compression  on  the  artery  to  allow  the  removal 
of  the  fingers  without  a  return  of  bleeding.  Continue  the 
compression  until  a  surgeon  can  be  called. 


Fig.  46. 


Fig.  47. 


Fi2.  4G.  The  method  of  applying  the  knotted  handkerchief  to  make  compression  on 
J>  is  artery.  A,  B,  The  track  of  the  large  artery  of  the  arm. 

Fig.  47.  A,  C,  The  track  of  the  large  artery  of  the  thigh.  B,  The  method  of  apply- 
ing the  knotted  handkerchief  to  compress  this  artery.  In  practice,  the  twisting  stick  B 
should  be  placed  opposite  the  knot  over  the  artery  A,  C. 

Observation.  When  an  artery  of  the  arm  is  cut,  elevating 
the  wounded  limb  above  the  head  will  tend  to  arrest  the  flow  of 
blood.  In  a  wound  of  a  lower  limb,  raise  the  foot,  so  that  it 
shall  be  higher  than  the  hip,  until  the  bleeding  ceases. 

Illustration.  On  one  occasion,  the  distinguished  Dr.  Nathan 
Smith  was  called  to  a  person  who  had  divided  one  of  the  large 
arteries  below  the  knee.  After  trying  in  vain  to  find  the  bleed- 
ing vessel,  so  as  to  secure  it,  he  caused  the  foot  to  be  elevated 

What  is  shown  by  figs.  46,  47?    Give  observation.    Relate  a  simple 
operation  by  Dr.  Nathan  Smith. 
7 


74 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,   AND    HYGIENE. 


higher  than  the  hip.  At  the  first  instant,  the  blood  was  forced 
from  the  wound  about  twelve  inches;  in  u  minute,  it  was  dimin- 
ished to  three  or  four ;  and,  in  a  short  tim<j,  the  bleeding  ceased. 
This  Dr.  S.  called  his  "great"  operation;  and  it  was  truly 
great  in  simplicity  and  science. 

212.  In  "flesh  wounds,"  when  no  large  blood-vessel  is 
divided,  wash  the  part  with  cold  water,  and,  when  bleeding 
has  ceased,  draw  the  wound  together,  and  retain  it  with  narrow 
strips  of  adhesive  plaster.  These  should  be  put  pn  smoothly, 
and  a  sufficiont  number  applied  to  cover  the  wound.  In  most 
instances  of  domestic  practice,  the  strips  of  adhesive  plaster  are 
too  wide.  Thejr  should  not  exceed  in  width  one  fourth  of  an 
inch.  Then  appiy  a  loose  ba.idago,  and  avoid  all  "  healing 
salves,"  ointments,  and  washes. 

Tig.  48. 


Fig.  48.    The  manner  in  which  strips  of  adhesive  plaster  are  applied  to  wound? 

213.  The  union  of  the  divided  parts  is  effected  by  the  action 
of  the  divided  blood-vessels,  and  not  by  salves  and  ointments. 
The  only  object  of  the  dressing  is  to  keep  the  parts  together, 
and  protect  the  wound  from  air  and  impurities.  Nature,  in  all 
cases  of  wounds,  performs  her  own  cure.  Such  simple  incisions 
do  not  generally  require  a  second  dressing,  and  should  not  be 
opened  till  the  parts  are  healed.  In  removing  the  dressing 
from  a  wound,  both  ends  of  the  strips  of  plaster  should  be 
raised  and  drawn  toward  the  incision.  The  liability  of  the 
wound  re-opening  is  thus  dimLished. 

•*    How  should  "  flesh  wounds  "  be  dressed  ?    213.  How  is  the  union  of 
4ivided  parts  effected  ?    What  should  be  avoided  ?    How  should  the 
»trips  of  plaster  be  removed  from  a  wound  't 


HYGIENE    OF   THE    CIRCULATORY    ORGANS.  75 

214.  The  proper  position  of  the  limbs  favors  the  union  of 
wounds.  If  the  wound  be  upon  the  front  part  of  the  leg, 
between  the  knee  and  ankle,  extending  the  knee  and  bending 
the  ankle  will  aid  its  closing.  If  the  wound  be  upon  the  back 
part  of  the  leg,  by  extending  the  foot  and  bending  the  knee, 
the  gaping  of  the  wound  will  be  diminished.  When  wounds 
occur  upon  the  trunk,  let  the  position  of  the  person  be  regarded. 


Fig.  49. 


Fig.  40.  a,  a,  Wounds  on  the  back  part  of  the  arm  and  fore-arm,  b,  b,  Wounda 
on  the  front  part  of  the  arm  and  fore-arm.  By  bending  the  elbow  and  wrist,  the 
wounds  at  a,  a,  are  opened,  while  the  wounds  at  ft,  ft,  are  closed.  Were  the  arm  ex 
tended  at  the  elbow  and  wrist,  the  wounds  at  a,  a,  would  be  closed,  and  those  at  ft,  ft 
would  be  opened. 

215.  In  wounds  made  by  pointed  instruments,  as  a  nail,  or 
in  lacerated  wounds,  as  those  made  by  forcing  a  blunt  instru- 
ment, as  a  hook,  into  the  soft  parts,  there  will  be  no  direct  and 
immediate  union.  In  these  cases,  apply  a  soothing  poultice,  as 
one  made  of  linseed  meal,  and  also  keep  the  limb  still.  It  is 
judicious  to  consult  a  physician  immediately,  in  punctured  or 
lacerated  wounds,  because  they  often  induce  the  most  danger 
ous  diseases. 


214.  Does  the  proper  position  of  the  limbs  favor  the  union  of  wounds  I 
215.  How  should  punctured  and  lacerated  wounds  be  dressed  ? 


76  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

•CHAPTER    XVI. 

ABSORPTION. 

216.  ABSORPTION  is  the  process  by  which  the  nutrient  por- 
tion of  the  food  is  removed  from  the  alimentary  canal  to  be 
conveyed  into  the  circulatory  vessels.    It  is  likewise  the  process 
by  which  the  particles  of  matter  that  have  become  injurious  or 

iseless,  are  removed  from  the  mass  of  fluids  and  solids  of 
which  the  body  is  composed.  Thesff  renovating  and  remov- 
ing processes  are  performed  by  two  sets  of  vessels. 

ANATOMY  OF  THE  LYMPHATIC  VESSELS. 

217.  The  vessels  that  act  exclusively  for  the  growth  and 
renovation  of  the  system,  are  found  only  in   the  alimentary 
canal.     They  are  called  lac'te-als* 

218.  The  vessels  whose  sole  function  is  to  remove  particles 
of  matter  already  deposited,  are   called   lym-pliat'ics.      The 
radicals,  or  commencement  of  the  veins,  in  many,  and  it  may 
be  in  all  parts  of  the  body,  perform  the  office  of  absorption. 

Fig.  50.  A  representation  of  the  lymphatic  vessels  and  glands.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,.  6,  The 
lymphatic  vessels  and  glands  of  the  lower  limbs.  7,  Lymphatic  glands.  8,  The 
commencement  of  the  thoracic  duct.  9,  The  lymphatics  of  the  kidney.  10,  Of  the 
stomach.  11,  Of  the  liver.  12,  12,  The  lungs.  13,  14,  15,  The  lymphatics  and 
glands  of  the  arm.  16,  17,  18,  Of  the  face  and  neck.  19,  20,  Large  veins.  21,  The 
thoracic'duct.  26,  The  lymphatics  of  the  heart 


See  paragraph.  142. 


216,  What  is  absorption  ?  217.  What  are  those  vessels  called  that  act 
exclusively  for  the  growth  and  renovation  of  the  body  ?  218 — 221.  Give 
the  anatomy  of  the  lymphatic  vessels.  218.  Name  those  vessels  that  remove 
the  atoms  already  deposited.  What  other  vessels  perform  the  office  of 
\hsorption  ?  What  does  fig.  50  represent  ? 


ANATOMY    OF    THE    LYMPHATIC    VESSELS. 

Fig.  50. 


15 


7  AN  ATOM  *,    PHYSIOLUG1,   AND   HYGIENE. 

219.  The  LYMPHATIC  VESSELS  are  very  minute  at  their  com- 
mencement;   so  much  so,  that  they  cannot  be  seen  without 
the  aid  of  a  magnifying  glass.     As  they  proceed,  they  unite 
and  form  larger  trunks,  that  open  into  the  veins. 

220.  Lymphatic   vessels   are  found   in   every   part  of  the 
body,  except  the  brain,  yet,  it  is  supposed  they  exist  in  this  or- 
gan.    The  knotted  appearance  of  these  vessels  is  owing  to 
the  arrangement  of  their  internal  coats,  to  form  valves. 

221.  In  certain  parts  of  the  body,  as  the  neck,  these  ves- 
sels pass  through  small,  soft  bodies,  called  lymphatic  glands, 
which  are  to  these  vessels  what  the  mesenteric  glands  are  to 
the  lacteals. 

Observation.  Sometimes,  when  we  are  afflicted  with  a 
cold,  these  glands  in  the  neck  enlarge ;  they  are  usually 
called  "kernels." 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  LYMPHATIC  VESSELS. 

222.  Though  the  lacteals  and   lymphatics  resemble  each 
other  in  their  structure  and  termination,  yet  they  differ  as  to  the 
nature  of  the  fluids  which  they  convey,  as  well  as  the  nature  of 
their  functions.     The  lacteals  open  into  the   small  intestine, 
and  possess  the  power  of  rejecting  all  substances  in  the  passing 
food  but  the  chyle. 

223.  The  lymphatics,  on  the  contrary,  not  only  imbibe,  or 
suck  up,  all  the  various  constituents  of  the  body,  both  fluid  and 
solid,  when  their  vitality  has  ceased,  but  they  absorb  foreign 
and  extraneous  substances  when  presented  to  their  mouths. 

Observations.     1st.    When  little  or  no  food  is  taken  into  the 
stomach,  life  is  supported  by  the  lymphatic  vessels  imbibing 

219.  Describe  the  lymphatic  vessels.  220.  Where  are  they  found  ?  To 
what  is  the  knotted  appearance  of  these  vessels  owing  ?  222 — 224.  Give 
the  use  of  tJie  lymphatic  vessels.  221.  What  are  lymphatic  glands  ?  Give 
observation.  222.  What  is  said  of  the  lacteals  and  lymphatics  ?  Give 
the  function  of  the  former.  223.  Give  the  use  of  the  lymphatics.  How 
Is  life  supported  when  little  or  no  food  is  eaten  ? 


HYGIENE    OF   THE    LYMPHATIC   VESSELS.  79 

<he  fat,  and  reconveying  it  into  the  circulatory  vessels.  It  is 
the  removal  of  this  substance  which  causes  the  emaciation  of 
the  face  and  limbs  of  a  person  recovering  from  a  fever.  In 
consumption,  the  extreme  attenuation  of  the  limbs  is  caused  by 
the  absorption,  not  only  of  the  fet,  but  also  of  the  muscles  and 
more  solid  parts  of  the  body. 

2d.  Animals  which  live  in  r  half  torpid  state  during  the 
winter,  derive  their  nourishmenv  from  the  same  source.  In 
other  words,  we  may  say  the  starving  animal  lives  for  a  time 
upon  itself,  eating  up,  by  intern?!  absorption,  such  parts  of  the 
body  as  can  be  spared,  under  urgent  necessity,  to  feed  these 
organs,  and  continue  those  functions  that  are  absolutely  essen. 
tial  to  life. 

224.  The  most  important  absorbing  surfaces  are  the 
stomach,  intestines,  lungs,  anc?  skin.  Through  the  lungs, 
absorption  is  not  only  very  greit,  but  extremely  rapid. 

Illustration.  In  inhaling  sulphuric  ether,  or  letheon,  it  is 
introduced  into  the  vessels  of  the  lungs  in  the  form  of  vapor, 
and  through  them  it  is  rapidly  conveyed  to  the  brain,  and  thus 
influences  the  nervous  system. 


HYGIENE  OF  THE  LYMPHATIC  VESSELS. 

225.  By  the  action  of  the  lymphatics,  substances  of  an  inju- 
rious, as  well  as  of  a  beneficial  character  may   be  conveyed 
into  the  system.     These  vessels,  under  certain  conditions,  are 
more  active  in  their  office  than  at  other  periods ;  and  it  is  of 
practical  utility  to  know  what  influences  their  action. 

226.  The  function  of  t/iese  vessels  is  increased  by  moisture, 

What  causes  the  extreme  attenuation  of  the  limbs  in  consumption  ?  How 
do  those  animals  derive  their  nourishment  that  live  in  a  half  torpid  state 
during  winter  ?  224.  What  are  the  most  important  absorbing  surfaces  ? 
How  is  letheon  introduced  into  the  svstem  ?  225 — 229.  Give  the  hygiene 
of  the  lymphatic  vessels.  225.  What  is  said  respecting  the  action  of  the 
lymphatic  vessels  ?  226.  What  influences  the  function  of  these  vessels  ? 


b'O  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

and  lessened  by  an  inactive  state  of  the  lacteals.  Obser- 
vation shows  that  the  ill-fed,  and  those  persons  that  live  in 
marshy  districts,  contract  contagious  diseases  more  readily  than 
those  individuals  who  are  well  fed,  and  breathe  a  dry  and 
pure  air. 

227.  The  skin   and   the   apparel  of  nurses   and   watchers 
should  be  clean,  and  as  free  of  perspiration  as  possible.     The  air 
of  the  sick-room  should  also  be  dry.     The  observance  of  these 
conditions   tends  to    prevent  the  absorption   of  the    poisonous 
matter  of  contagious  diseases,  as  small-pox,  measles,  &c. 

Observation.  When  we  have  been  visiting,  or  attending  on 
a  sick  person,  it  is  judicious  to  change  the  apparel  worn  in  the 
sick-room,  and  also  give  the  skin  a  thorough  bathing.  The  out- 
side garments,  also,  should  be  aired,  as  poisonous  matter  may 
have  penetrated  the  meshes  of  the  cloth. 

228.  The  stomach  should  be  supplied  with  food  of  a  nutrient 
and  digestible  character,  in  proper  quantities,  and  at  stated 
periods.      The  chyle    formed    from   the   food   stimulates   the 
lacteals  to  activity,  which  activity  is  attended  with  aji  inactive 
state  of  the  lymphatics  of  the  skin  and  lungs.     Thus  due  at- 
tention should  be  given  to  the  food  of  the  attendants  on  the 
sick,  and  the  children  of  the  family. 

Observation.  Many  individuals,  to  prevent  contracting  dis- 
ease that  may  be  communicated  from  one  person  to  another, 
use  tobacco,  either  chewed  or  smoked;  and  sometimes  alco- 
hol, with  decoctions  of  bitter  herbs.  These  substances  do  not 
diminish,  but  tend  to  increase  the  activity  of  the  lymphatics. 
Thus  they  make  use  of  the  means  by  which  the  poisonous 
matter  formed  in  the  system  of  the  diseased  person,  may  be 
more  readily  conveyed  into  their  own. 

"What  does  observation  show  ?  227.  Why  should  the  skin  and  apparel 
of  nurses  and  watchers  be  as  free  of  perspiration  as  possible  ?  What  sug- 
gestion when  we  have  been  visiting  or  attending  on  the  sick  ?  228.  Why 
should  the  stomach  be  supplied  with  food  of  a  nutrient  and  digestible 
character  ?  What  is  said  of  the  use  of  alcohol  or  tobacco,  in  preventing  th<= 
introduction  of  the  poisonous  matter  of  contagious  diseases  ? 


HYGIENE    OF    THE    LVMPHATIC    VESSELS.  81 

229.  Absorption  by  the  skin  is  most  vigorous  when  the  ex- 
ternal layer  is  removed  by  ves'cation,  or  Blistering.  Then, 
external  applications,  as  ointments,  are  brought  in  immediate 
contact  with  the  orifices,  or  mouths,  of  tne  lymphatics  of  the 
skin,  and  by  them  rapidly  imbibed  and  circulated  through  the 
system.  The  same  results  follow,  if  the  skin  is  only  punctured. 

Observation.  1st.  In  case  of  an  accidental  wound,  it  is  best 
immediately  to  bathe  the  part  thoroughly  in  pure  water,  and  to 
avoid  all  irritating  applications.  In  some  instances,  it  would  be 
well  to  apply  lunar  caustic  immediately. 

2d.  When  shrouding  dead  bodies,  or  removing  the  skin 
from  animals  that  have  died  of  disease,  it  would  be  well  to 
lubricate  the  hands  with  olive-oi1  or  lard.  This  affords  pro- 
tection to  the  minute  portions  of  the  skin  from  which  the 
external  layer  may  be  removed 

3d.  In  all  cases  where  there  is  an  ulcer,  or  sore,  the  part 
should  be  covered  with  something  impervious  to  fluids,  as 
court-plaster,  before  exposing  the  system  to  any  animal,  vege- 
table, or  mineral  poison. 

229.  When  is  absorption  by  the  skin  most  vigorous  ?  Give  observation 
1st.  Observation  2d.  Observation  3d. 


82  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

SECRETION. 

230.  IN  the  human  body  are  found  many  fluids  and  solids  of 
dissimilar  appearance  and  character.     These  are  produced  by 
the  action  of  organs  called  Se'cre-to-ry.     Some  of  these  organs 
are  of  simple  structure,  while  others  are  very  complicated  in 
their  arrangement. 

ANATOMY  OF  THE  SECRETORY  ORGANS. 

231.  The  SECRETORY  ORGANS  are  of  three  kinds,  namely, 
the  Ex-ha!lents,  Fol'll-cles,  and  the  Glands. 

232.  The  EXHALENTS  are  supposed  to  be  terminations  of  the 
arteries,  or  capillaries.     They  are  of  two  kinds,  external  and 
internal.     The  latter  terminate  on  the  surfaces  Vithin  the  body, 
and  the  former  upon  the  outside. 

Fig.  51. 


Fig.  51.  A  secretory  follicle.  An  artery  is  seen,  which  supplies  the  material  for  its 
secretion.  Follicles  are  also  supplied  with  veins  and  organic  nerves. 

233.  The  FOLLICLES  are  small  bags,  or  sacs,  in  the  deeper 
layer  of  the  skin  and  mucous  membrane.  The  pores  seen  on 
the  skin  are  the  outlets  of  these  bodies. 

230.  How  are  the  fluids  and  solids  of  the  body  produced?  231—234.  Give 
the  anatomy  of  the  secretory  organs.  231.  Name  the  secretory  organs. 
232.  Describe  the  exhalents.  What  does  fig.  51  represent  ?  233.  Define 
follicles. 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE    SECRETORY    ORGANS.  83 

234.  The  GLANDS  are  the  chief  agents  of  secretion  in  the 
body.  They  are  formed  of  minute  arteries,  veins,  and  tubes, 
wound  together.  These  organs  vary  in  size  from  a  mustard- 
seed  to  that  of  the  liver,  which  weighs  from  two  to  four  pounds. 
Every  gland,  however  minute,  has  a  small  duct  for  collecting 
and  carrying  off  the  secreted  fluid. 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  SECRETORY  ORGANS. 

235.  SECRETION  is  one  of  the  most  obscure  and  mysterious 
functions  of  the  body.  It  has  the  same  meaning  (physiologi- 
cally) as  separation.  Not  only  is  the  process  by  which  sub- 
stances are  separated  from  the  blood,  called  secretion^  but  the 
same  term  is  also  applied  to  substances  thus  separated. 

Fig.  52. 


Fig.  52.  a,  a,  A  secretory  gland.  6,  b,  Minute  ducts  that  are  spread  through  tho 
glands.  These  coalesce  to  form  the  main  duct,  c. 

236.  Ail  the  fluids  of  the  body  are  deriveo  from  the  blood, 
and  this  element,  when  distributed  to  the  different  glands  and 
follicles,  is  similar  in  composition  and  character;  but  the  fluids 
secreted  by  them,  vary  in  appearance  in  a  remarkable  degree. 
The  office  of  the  glands  is  principally  to  form  different  secre 

234.  What  is  said  of  the  glands  ?  Explain  fig.  52.  235—237.  Give  the 
physiology  of  the  secretory  organs.  235.  "WTiat  is  secretion  ?  236.  From 
what  are  all  the  fluids  of  the  body  derived  ?  "WTjat  is  the  principal  office 
of  the  glands  5 


HI  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

tions.  Thus  the  salivary  glands  secrete  the  insipid  saliva ;  the 
liver,  the  yellow,  ropy  bile ;  and  the  kidneys,  the  acrid  urine. 

237.  When  any  substance  which  is  not  demanded  for  nutri- 
tion, or  does  not  give  nourishment  to  the  system,  is  taken  up  by 
the  lymphatic  vessels  and  conveyed  into  the  blood,  it  is  dis- 
charged by  secretions. 

Illustration.  A  few  years  since,  a  poor  inebriate  was  carried 
to  a  London  hospital  in  a  state  of  intoxication.  He  lived  but  a 
few  hours.  On  examining  his  brain,  nearly  half  a  gill  of  fluid, 
strongly  impregnated  with  gin,  was  found  in  the  cavities  of  this 
organ.  This  was  secreted  from  the  vessels  of  the  brain. 


HYGIENE   OF  THE   SECRETORY   ORGANS. 

238.  Unless  the  secretions   are  regularly  maintained,  dis- 
ease will  be  the  ultimate  result.     Let  the  secretions  from  the 
skin  be  suppressed,  and  fever  or  some  internal  inflammation 
will  follow.     If  the  bile  is  impeded,  digestion  will  be  impaired. 
If  any  other  secretion  is  suppressed,  it  will  cause  a  derange- 
ment of  the  various  internal  organs. 

Observation.  Ardent  spirits  derange  the  secretions,  and 
change  the  structure  of  the  brain.  This  is  one  reason  why 
inebriates  do  not  live  to  advanced  age. 

239.  The  quantity  of  blood  influences  ike  character  of  the 
secretions.     If  it  is  lessened  to  any  great  extent,  the  secretions 
will  be  lessened,  as  well  as  changed  in  character. 

Illustration.  When  a  person  has  lost  a  considerable  quantity 
of  blood,  there  is  a  sensation  of  thirst  in  the  throat,  attended 
with  a  cold,  pale,  dry  skin.  When  reaction  comes  on,  the 

237.  What  becomes  of  those  substances  which  are  taken  up  by  the 
lymphatics,  and  do  not  nourish  the  body  ?  How  is  this  illustrated  ? 
238 — 241.  Give  the  hygiene  of  the  secretory  organs.  238.  What  is  the  effect 
«n  the  system  if  the  secretions  are  not  regularly  maintained  ?  What  is 
&  reason  that  inebriates  do  not  live  to  an  advanced  age  ?  239.  What  effect 
on  the  secretions  when  the  quantity  of  blood  is  lessened?  How  is  this 
Plustrated  ? 


HYGIENE  OF  THE  SECRETORY  ORGANS          *#> 

perspiration   is   cold,   attended   with    nausea,   and   sometimes 
vomiting. 

240.  The   amount  of  action  modifies  the  condition  of  the 
secretory  organs.      When   a   secretory  organ   is  excessively 
stimulated,  its  vigor  and  energy  are  reduced.     The  subsequent 
debility  may  be  so  great  as  to  suppress  or  destroy  its  functional 
power. 

Illustrations.  1st.  In  those  sections  of  the  country  where  flax 
is  spun  on  a  "  foot-wheel,"  the  spinners  sometimes  moisten  the 
thread  with  saliva.  This  seems  to  operate  economically  for  a 
time,  but  debility  of  the  salivary  organs  soon  follows,  and  they 
are  incapable  of  supplying  saliva  sufficient  to  moisten  the  food, 
producing,  in  a  short  time,  disease  of  the  digestive  organs. 

2d.  The  habit  of  continual  spitting,  which  attends  the  chew- 
ing of  tobacco  and  gums,  induces  debility,  not  only  of  the 
salivary  glands,  but  of  the  system  generally. 

241.  The  secretions  are  much  influenced  by  mental  emo- 
tions.    If  we  smell  savory  food,  there  will  be  an  increased  flow 
of  saliva  ;  if  we  hear  the  intelligence  of  the  death  of  a  cherished 
friend,  the  tear  will  quickly  course  down  the  cheek. 

Observation.  Such  is  the  nice  sympathy  which  exists  be- 
tween different  parts  of  the  body,  that  in  the  evenings  of  the 
warm  season,  a  chill  upon  the  impressible  skin  that  suppresses 
the  perspiration,  is  frequently  followed  by  a  diarrhoea,  dysen- 
tery, or  cholera  morbus.  These  can  be  prevented  by  avoiding 
the  chill.  An  efficient  means  of  relief,  is,  immediately  to 
restore  the  skin  to  its  proper  action. 

240.  What  is  the  effect  if  a  secretory  organ  is  excessively  stimulated  ? 
How  is  this  effect  illustrated  by  the  use  of  the  salivary  glands  ?     241.  Does 
the  state  of  the  mind  influence  the  secretions  ?     What  is  said  of  the  sym- 
pathy between  different  parts  of  the  body  ? 
8 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER    XYIII. 

NUTRITION. 

242.  THE  BLOOD  is  the  nutritive  fluid  of  animals.     It  is  com- 
posed of  two  parts  —  a  watery  fluid,  called  serum,  and  a  solid 
portion,  called  co-ag'u-lum,  (clot.) 

Observation.  That  portion  of  the  serum  which  remains  fluid 
after  coagulation  by  heat  has  taken  place,  is  called  se-ros'i-ty. 
It  is  more  abundant  in  the  blood  of  old,  than  in  that  of  young 
animals  ;  and  it  forms  the  "  red  gravy  "  in  roasted  meats. 

243.  The  blood  is  not  necessarily  red.     It  may  be  white,  as 
in  the  fish ;  transparent,  as  in  the  insect ;  or  yellowish,  as  in 
the  reptile.     There  is  no  animal  in  which  the  blood  is  red  in  all 
parts  of  the  body.     The  ligaments  and  tendons,  in  man,  are  not 
supplied  with  red,  but  with  white  blood. 

244.  NUTRITION  is  the  vital  act  by  which  the  different  parts 
of  the  body  renew  the  materials  of  which  they  are  composed. 
Digestion,  circulation,  absorption,  and  respiration,  are  but  sepa- 
rate links  in  the  chain  of  nutrition,  which  would  be  destroyed 
by  the  absence  of  any  one  of  them. 

245.  The  nutritive  process  is  a  kind  of  secretion,  by  which 
particles  of  matter  are  separated  from  the  blood,  and  conveyed 
with  wonderful  accuracy  to  the  appropriate  textures,  or  parts 
of  the  body. 

246.  The  function  of  the  nutrient  vessels  antagonize  those 
of  absorption  ;  while  one  system  is  constructing,  with  beautiful 

242.  What  is  the  nutritive  fluid  of  animals  ?  Of  what  is  it  composed  ? 
What  forms  the  red  gravy  in  roasted  meat  ?  243.  What  is  said  of  the  color 
of  the  blood?  244 — 248.  What  .remarks  respecting  nutrition?  244.  WliD' 
is  nutrition  ?  245.  What  is  said  of  the  nutritive  process  ?  246.  What  cau 
you  say  of  the  function  of  the  nutrient  vessels  ? 


NUTRITION.  87 

precision,  the  animal  frame,  the  other  is  diligently  employed 
in  pulling  down  this  complicated  structure.  But  amid  this 
simultaneous  renovation  and  decay,  the  form  and  beauty  of  the 
organs  are  preserved. 

Observation.  This  ever-changing  state  of  the  body  is  shown 
by  giving  animals  colored  matter,  mixed  with  their  food,  which 
in  a  short  time  tinges  their  bones  with  the  same  color  as  the 
matter  introduced.  Let  it  be  withdrawn,  and  in  a  few  days 
the  bones  will  assume  their  former  color  —  evidently  from  the 
effects  of  absorption.  The  changeful  state  of  the  body  is  fur- 
ther shown,  by  the  losses  to  which  it  is  subjected ;  by  the 
necessity  of  aliment;  by  the  emaciation  which  follows  absti- 
nence from  food. 

247.  The  renewal  of  every  part  of  the  body  is  not  perfected 
merely  by  the  passage  of  the  blood  through  the  arteries  of  the 
systemic   circulation,   but   by  .the   smallest   capillary  vessels, 
called  the  vessels  of  nutrition. 

248.  "  As  the  blood  goes  the  round  of  the  circulation,  the 
nutrient  capillary  vessels  select  and  secrete  those  parts  which 
are  similar  to  the  nature  of  the  structure,  and  the  other  portions 
pass  on ;  so  that  every  part  takes  up  and  converts  to  its  own 
use  the  very  principles  which  it  requires  for  its  growth  ;  or,  in 
other  words,  as  the  vital  current  approaches  each  organ,  the 
particles  appropriate  to  it  feel  its  attractive  force,  —  obey  it,  — 
quit  the  stream,  —  mingle  with  the  substance  of  its  texture, — 
and  are  changed  into  its  own  true  and  proper  nature." 

Illustration.  When  a  bone  is  broken,  or  a  nerve  wounded, 
minute  vessels  shoot  out  from  the  living  parts,  and  immediately 
commence  their  operations,  by  depositing  bony  matter,  where  it 
is  required  to  unite  fractured  bones,  and  nervous  substance  to 
heal  the  wounded  nerve. 

Give  a  proof  of  the  ever-changing  state  of  the  hody.  Give  other  instances 
illustrative  of  the  changeful  state  of  the  body.  247.  By  what  vessels  is  the 
renewal  of  every  part  of  the  body  perfected  ?  248.  What  is  said  of  the 
office  of  the  nutrient  capillary  vessels  ?  When  a  bone  is  fractured,  by  what 
process  is  it  healed  ? 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 
Fig.  53. 


Fig.  53.  A  front  view  of  the  organs  within  the  chest  and  abdomen.  1,  1,  1,  1.  The 
muscles  of  the  chest.  2,2,2,2,  The  ribs.  3,3,3,  The  upper,  middle,  and  lower 
lobes  of  the  right  lung.  4,  4,  The  lobes  of  the  left  lung.  5,  The  right  ventFicle  of 
the  heart.  6,  The  left  ventricle.  7,  The  right  auricle  of  the  heart.  8,  The  left  auri- 
cle. 9,  The  pulmonary  artery.  10,  The  aorta.  11,  The  vena  cava  descenden.-i. 
12,  The  trachea.  13,  The  oesophagus.  14,  14,  14,  14,  The  pleura.  15,  15,  15,  The 
diaphragm.  16,  16,  The  right  and  left  lobe  of  the  liver.  17,  The  gall-cyst.  18,  The 
stomach.  26,  The  spleen.  19,  19,  The  duodenum.  20,  The  ascending  colon. 
21,  The  transverse  colon.  25,  The  descending  colon.  22,  22,  22,  22,  The  small  in- 
testines. 23,  23,  The  abdominal  walls  turned  down.  24,  The  thoracic  duct,onenins 
into  the  left  subclavian  vein,  (27  "> 


ANATOMY   OP   THE    RESPIRATORY   ORGANS.  89 


CHAPTER    XIX. 

THE   RESPIRATORY    ORGANS. 

249.  THE  nutrient  portion  of  the  food  is  poured  into  the 
vein  at  the  lower  part  of  the  neck,  and  is  carried  to  the  right 
cavities  of  the  heart.     The  fluid  in  these  cavities  consists  of  the 
chyle  mixed   with  the  venous   blood.      Neither  cf  these  two 
elements  is  fitted  to  promote  the  growth  or  repair  the  waste  of 
the  body.     They  must  be  subjected  to  a  process,  by  which  the 
first  can  be  converted  into  blood,  and  the  second  freed  of  its 
impurities,  (carbonic  acid  and  water.)     This   is   effected   by 
the  Respiratory  Organs. 

ANATOMY  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  ORGANS. 

250.  The  ORGANS  OF  RESPIRATION  are  the  Lungs,  (lights; ; 
the   Tra'che-a,  (wind-pipe ;)    the   Bronch'i-a,  (subdivisions   of 
the  trachea ;)  and  the  Air  Ves'i-cles,  (air-cells  at  the  extrem- 
ities of  the  bronchia.)     The  Di'a-phragm,  (midriff;)  ribs,  and 
several  muscles,  also  aid  in  the  respiratory  process. 

251.  The  LUNGS  are  conical  organs,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
chest,  embracing  the  heart,  and  separated  from  each  other  by  a 
membranous  partition.     The  color  of  the  lungs  is  a  pinkish  gray, 
mottled,  and  variously  marked  *with   black.     They  are  com- 
posed of  air-cells  and  tubes,  beside  many  small  blood-vessels. 

252.  Each  lung  is  surrounded  by  a  membrane,  called  the 

249.  What  fluids  are  conveyed  into  the  right  cavities  of  the  heart  ?  What 
is  necessary  before  they  can  be  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  body  ?  By  what 
organs  are  these  changes  effected  ?  250 — 256.  Give  the  anatomy  of  the 
respiratory  organs.  250.  Name  the  respiratory  organs.  What  organs  also 
aid  in  the  respiratory  process  ?  251.  Describe  the  lungs.  252.  Describe 
the  pleura. 

8* 


90  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,   AND    HYGIENE. 

pleu'ra,  which  not  only  surrounds  these  organs,  but  is  reflected 
upon  the  walls  of  the  chest.  The  lungs,  however,  are  on  the 
outside  of  the  pleura,  in  the  same  way  as  the  head  is  on  the 
outside  of  a  cap  doubled  upon  itself. 

Observation.  When  this  membrane,  that  covers  the  lungs, 
and  also  lines  the  chest,  is  inflamed,  the  disease  is  called 
"  pleurisy." 

253.  The  TRACHEA  is  situated  in  the  front  part  of  the  neck, 
and  extends  from  the  mouth  to  the  lungs.     It  is  composed  of 
cartilaginous  rings,  which  are  very  elastic. 

254.  The  BRONCHIA  are  the  divisions  of  the  trachea  at  its 
lower   extremity,  behind  the  upper  part  of  the   heart.     One 
branch   passes   to  the   right   lung,  and  the  other  to  the  left. 
These  branches,  upon  entering  the  lung,  divide  into  an  almost 
infinity  of  smaller  branches. 

Illustration.  The  trachea  may  be  compared  to  the  trunk  of 
a  tree ;  the  bronchia  to  two  large  branches ;  the  subdivisions  of 
the  bronchia  to  the  branchlets  and  twigs ;  the  air-cells  to  the 
buds  seen  on  the  twigs  in  the  spring. 

255.  The  AIR-CELLS  are  very  small  sacs,  or  bladders,  at  the 
end  of  the  minute  divisions  of  the  bronchia.     Their  walls  are 
extremely  thin,  the  interior  of  which,  as  well  as  the  trachea 
and  bronchia,  are  lined  by  mucous  membrane.     These  cells 
are  variable  in  size,  and  are  most  numerous  in  the  middle  and 
lower  part  of  the  lungs. 

Observation.  When  the  mucous  membrane  of  a  few  of  the 
larger  branches  of  the  wind-pipe  is  slightly  inflamed,  it  is  called 
a  "  cold ; "  when  the  inflammation  is  greater,  and  extends  to  the 
lesser  air-tubes,  it  is  called  bronchitis.  Coughing  is  a  violent 
expulsory  effort,  by  which  air  is  suddenly  forced  through  the 
bronchia  and  trachea  to  remove  offending  matter. 

"What  is  the  disease  called  when  this  membrane  is  inflamed  ?  253.  De- 
scribe the  trachea.  254.  "What  are  the  broncnia  ?  To  what  may  the 
trachea  and  branches  be  compared  ?  255.  Describe  the  air-cells,  "Where 
are  they  the  most  numerous  ?  Mention  some  diseases  of  the  membrane 
that  lines  the  bronchia. 


ANATOMY    OF    THE   RESPIRATORY    ORGANS. 


91 


Observation.  The  structure  of  the  trachea  and  lungs  may 
be  illustrated  by  taking  these  parts  of  a  calf  or  sheep,  and 
inflating  the  bronchial  tubes  by  forcing  air  into  the  wind-pipe 
with  a  pipe  or  quill.  The  internal  structure  may  then  be 
seen  by  opening  the  different  parts. 

Fig.  54. 


Fig.  54.  A  representation  of  the  larynx,  trachea,  bronchia,  and  air-cells.  1,1,1,  An 
outline  of  the  right  lung.  2,  2,  2,  An  outline  of  the  left  lung.  3,  The  larynx 
4,  The  trachea.  5,  The  right  bronchial  tube.  6,  The  left  bronchial  tube.  7,  7,  7, 
8,  8, 8,  Bronchial  tubes  of  right  and  left  lung.  9,  9,  9,  9,  9,  9,  Air-cells. 

256.   The  DIAPHRAGM  is  a  flexible,  circular  partition,  that  sep- 
arates the  respiratory  from  the  digestive  organs,  and  the  chest 

How  can  the  stn^ure  of  the  trachea  and  lungs  be  illustrated  ?  256.  De- 
scribe the  diaphragm 


92  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

from  the  abdomen.  Its  margin  is  attached  to  the  spinal  column 
the  sternum,  and  cartilages  of  the  lower  ribs.  In  a  state  of  re< 
pose,  its  centre  rises  into  the  chest  m  the  form  of  an  arch. 
When  air  is  forcibly  expelled  from  the  lungs,  its  upper  point 
reaches  as  high  as  the  fourth  rib.  It  is  depressed  as  low  as  the 
seventh  rib,  when  air  is  drawn  into  the  lungs. 


Kt?.  55. 


Kg.  56. 


T\g.  55.  A  section  of  the  chest  when  the  lungs  are  inflated.  1,  The  diaphragm. 
2,  The  muscular  walls  of  the  abdomen. 

Fig.  56.  A  section  of  the  chest  when  the  lungs  are  contracted.  1,  The  diaphragm, 
in  common  expiration.  2,  2,  The  muscular  walls  of  the  abdomen.  3,  The  position 
of  the  diaphragm  in  forced  expiration. 

These  engravings  show  the  diaphragm  to  be  more  convex,  and  the  walls  of  the 
abdomen  more  flattened,  when  the  lungs  are  collapsed,  than  when  they  are  inflated. 


"What  is  its  form  when  not  in  action  ?  How  high  does  its  central  portion 
rise  in  forced  expiration  ?  How  low  does  it  descend  when  air  is  drawn  into 
tne  lungs  ?  What  do  figs.  55  and  56  illustrate  ? 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  ORGANS.       93 


CHAPTER  XX. 

PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY 
ORGANS. 

257.  RESPIRATION,  or  breathing,  is  that  process  by  which 
air  is  drawn  into  the  lungs  and  expelled  from  them.     The  prin- 
cipal object  in  breathing,  in  animals,  is  to  free  the  dark  blood 
of  one  of  the  principal  substances  that  compose  the  old  and 
useless  particles  of  the  body. 

258.  When  air  is  drawn  into  the  lungs,  the  muscular  margin 
of  the  diaphragm  contracts,  which  depresses  its  central  portion ; 
the  chest  is  then  enlarged  at  the  expense  of  the  abdomen.     At 
the  same  time  that  the  diaphragm  is  depressed,  the  ribs  are 
thrust  forward  and  upward  by  means  of  muscles  placed  be- 
tween and  on  them.     Thus   the   chest   is  enlarged  in  every 
direction. 

259.  The  lungs  follow  the  variations  of  capacity  in  the  chest, 
expanding  their  air-cells  when  the  latter  is  enlarged,  and  con- 
tracting when  the  chest  is  diminished.     Thus,  when  the  chest 
is  expanded,  the  lungs  follow,  and  consequently  a  vacuum  is 
produced  in  their  air-cells.     The  air  then  rushes  through  the 
mouth  and  nose  into  the  trachea  and  its  branches,  and  fills  the 
vacuum   as  fast    as    it    is    made.      This   mechanical  process 
constitutes  inspiration. 

260.  After  the  expansion  of  the  chest,  the  muscles  that  ele- 
vated the  ribs  relax,  together  with   the  diaphragm.     The  elas- 
ticity of  the  cartilages  of  the  ribs  depresses  them,  and  the 

2-57 — 266.  Give  th-e  use  of  the  respiratory  organs.  2-57.  What  is  respira- 
tion ?  What  is  the  principal  object  in  breathing  ?  258.  Describe  how  the 
chest  is  en]  irged  in  respiration  ?  259.  Do  the  lungs  follow  the  variation? 
of  capacity  in  the  chest  ?  What  constitutes  inspiration  ?  260.  How  is  tht- 
air  expelled  from  the  lungs  ? 


94 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,   AND    HYGIENE. 


cavity  of  the  chest  is  diminished,  attended  by  the  expulsion  of 
a  portion  of  the  air  from  the  lungs.  At  the  same  time,  the 
muscles  that  form  the  front  walls  of  the  abdominal  cavity,  con- 
tract  and  press  the  alimentary  canal,  stomach,  and  liver,  up- 
ward against  the  diaphragm  ;  this,  being  relaxed,  yields  to  the 
pressure,  rises  upward,  and  presses  upon  the  lungs,  which  re- 
ireat  before  it,  and  another  portion  of  air  is  expelled  from  these 
organs.  This  process  is  called  expiration. 

Fig.  57. 


Fig.  57.  A  front  view  of  the  chest  and  abdomen  in  respiration.  M  1,  The  position 
of  the  walls  of  the  chest  in  inspiration.  2,  2,  2,  The  position  of  the  diaphragm  in 
inspiration.  3,  3,  The  position  of  the  walls  of  the  chest  in  expiration.  4,  4,  4,  The 
position  of  the  diaphragm  in  expiration.  5,  5,  The  position  of  the  walls  of  the  abdo- 
men in  inspiration.  6,  6,  The  position  of  the  walls  of  the  abdomen  in  expiration 

261.   Thus  it  is  obvious  that  the  enlargement  of  the  chest. 
or  inspiration,  is  produced  in  two  ways — 1st.   By  the  depres- 

What  does  this  constitute  ?  Explain  fig.  57.  261.  In  how  many  ways  is 
the  chest  enlarged  ?  Name  them. 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  ORGANS.       95 

aion  of  the  central,  arched  portion  of  the  diaphragm.  2d.  By 
the  elevation  of  the  ribs.  On  the  contrary,  the  contraction  of  the 
chest,  or  expiration,  is  produced  by  the  depression  of  the  ribs, 
and  elevation  of  the  central  part  of  the  diaphragm.  These 
movements  are  successive  during  life,  and  constitute  res- 
piration. 

Experiment.  Place  the  ear  upon  the  chest  of  a  person,  and 
a  murmuring  sound  will  be  heard,  somewhat  like  the  soft  sigh- 
ings  of  the  wind  through  forest  trees.  This  sound  is  caused 
by  the  air  rushing  in  and  out  of  the  lungs,  and  is  peculiarly 
distinct  in  the  child. 

262.  As   before   mentioned,  the   dark,  impure   blood,  that 
passes  from  the  heart  to  the  lungs,  is  unfit  to  sustain  the  vital 
action  of  the  various  organs  of  the  body.     Its  impurities  must 
be  removed.     When  this  is  done,  the  blood  loses  its  blackish 
red  color,  and  becomes  of  a  bright  scarlet  red. 

263.  The  dark  color  of  the  blood  is  owing  to  the  presence 
of  carbonic  gas.     This  is  formed  in  the  blood-vessels  by  the 
union  of  carbon  (the   principal   element  of  the  dead,  waste 
atoms)  and  oxygen. 

264.  There  is  also,  mixed  with  the  dark  blood,  hydrogen, 
which,  when  united  with  oxygen,  forms  water.   Both  carbon  and 
hydrogen  are  supplied  to  the  blood  through  the  food.     They 
are  carried  out  of  the  system  not  only  by  the  lungs,  but  by  the 
skin  and  other  organs. 

Observation.     The   presence  of  carbonic  acid  and  watery\\x 
vapor    in    the   expired    air,  can   be    proved  by  the  following  / 
experiments.       1st.    Breathe    into    lime-water,  and   in   a  few  r 
minutes  it  will  become  of  a  milk-white  color.     This  is  owing  ' 
to    the    carbonic  acid  of   the    breath   uniting  with   the    lime, 
forming  the  carbonate  of  lime. 

How  is  it  contracted  ?  What  do  these  successive  movements  con- 
stitute ?  Give  an  experiment.  262.  What  change  must  be  made  in  the 
blood  before  it  can  sustain  life  ?  263.  To  what  is  the  dark  color  of  the 
blood  owing  ?  Where  is  this  gas  formed  ?  264.  What  element  beside 
carbon  Is  found  in  the  blood  ?  What  does  it  form  when  united  with  oxygrn  ' 


0b  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY,   AND   HYGIENE. 

2d.  Breathe  upon  a  cold,  dry  mirror,  for  a  few  minutes,  and 
it  will  be  covered  with  moisture.  This  is  condensed  vapor 
from  the  lungs.  In  warm  weather,  this  watery  vapor  is  invisible 
in  the  expired  air  ;  but,  in  a  cold,  dry  morning  in  winter,  the  suc- 
cessive jets  of  vapor  issuing  from  the  mouth  and  nose  are 
sufficiently  obvious. 

265.  Atmospheric  air,  or  that  which  fills  the  air-cells  of  the 
lungs,  is  composed  of  two  gases,  ox'y-gen  and  ni'tro-gen.  Oxy- 
gen has  the  property  of  supporting  life,  while  nitrogen  alone 
would  destroy  it.  But  combined  with  the  former  gas,  it  serves 
to  neutralize  the  otherwise  irritating  action  of  the  oxygen. 


Fig.  58.    1,  A  bronchial  tube    divided    into    three    branches.     2, 2, 2,  Air-ctslls. 

3,  Branches  of  the  pulmonary  artery,  that  spread  over  the  air-cells.    Through   the 
pulmonary  artery,  the   dark,  impure  blood   is   carried   to  the  air-cells  of  the  lungs. 

4,  Branches  of  the  pulmonary  vein,  that  commence  at  the  minute  terminations  of  the 
pulmonary  artery.  Through  the  pulmonary  vein,  the  red  blood  is  returned  to  the  heart 

266.  We  will  now  pass  to  the  change  which  the  air  effects 
when  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  blood  in  the  lungs.  As  the 
impure  blood  is  passing  in  th«*  minute  vessels  over  the  air-cells, 
the  oxygen  passes  through  the  extreme  thin  coats  of  the  air- 
cells  and  blood-vessels,  and  unites  with  the  blood.  At  the  same 
time,  the  carbonic  acid  and  watery  vapor  leave  the  blood,  and 
pass  througn  the  coats  of  the  blood-vessels  and  air-cells,  and 
mix  with  the  air  in  the  cells.  "These  are  expelled  from  the  air- 
How  are  these  elements  supplied  to  the  blood  ?  How  may  the  presence 
of  carbonic  acid  in  the  expired  air  be  proved  ?  The  presence  of  watery 
vapor  ?  265.  Of  what  is  the  air  composed  ?  What  property  has  oxyynn  ? 
Has  nitrogen  ?  206.  Explain  how  the  blood  is  changed  by  the  action  of 
the  air. 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  ORGANS.        97 

cells  every  time  we  breathe.     This  interchange  of  gases  pro- 
ducer the  change  in  the  color  of  the  blood. 

Experiment.  To  show  that  gases  may  be  interchanged 
through  membranes,  fill  a  bladder  with  dark  blood  drawn  from 
any  animal.  Tie  the  bladder  closely,  and  suspend  it  in  the 
aur.  In  a  few  hours,  the  blood  next  the  membrane  will  have 
become  of  a  bright  red  color.  This  is  owing  to  the  oxygen 
from  the  air  passing  through  the  bladder,  and  uniting  with  the 
blood,  while  the  carbonic  acid  has  escaped  through  the  mem- 

brano 

Fig.  59. 


2 


Fig.  59.      An   ideal   view  of  the    pulmonary  circulation.      1,  1,   The  right  lunu 
•J,  2,    The  left  lung.    3,  The  trachea.     4,  The  fight  bronchial  tube.     5,  The  IH'i 
bronchial  tube.     G,  f>,  C,  C,  Air-cells.    7,  The    right  auricle.    8,  The  right  ventric! 
9,  The  tricuspid  valves.     10,  The  pulmonary  artery.     11,  The  branch   to  the  TIIL 
lung.     12,  The  branch   to  the   left  lung.     13,  The  right  pulmonary  vein.     14,  Tin- 
left    puknonary  vein.      15,    The    left    auricle.      1G,    The    left    ventricle.     17,  The 
mitral  valves. 

Note.     Let  a  review  of  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  respirator 
organs  be  given  from  figs.  53,  59,  or  from  outline  anatomical  plates  5  an;: 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER    XXI. 

HYGIENE    OF    THE    RESPIRATORY    ORGANS* 

267.  FOR  man  to  enjoy  the  highest  degree  of  health,  it  >* 
necessary  that  the  impure  "venous"  blood  be  properly  changed. 
As  this  is  effected  in  the  lungs  by  the  action  of  the  air,  it  follows 
that  this  element,  when  breathed,  should  be  pure,  or  contain 
twenty-one   per   cent,  of  oxygen  to   about   seventy-nine   per 
cent,  of  nitrogen. 

268.  The  quality  or  purity  of  the  air  is  affected  by  every 
respiration.     The  quantity  of  nitrogen  is  nearly  the  same  in 
the  expired,  as  in  the  inspired  air.     But  the  quantity  of  oxygen 
is  diminished,  and  that  of  carbonic  acid  is  increased.     Thus, 
every  time  we  force  air  from  the  lungs,  it  becomes  unfit  to  be 
breathed  again. 

Experiment.  Sink  a  glass  jar  that  has  a  stop-cock,  or  one 
with  a  glass  stopper,  into  a  pail  of  water,  until  the  air  is  expelled 
from  the  jar.  Fill  the  lungs  with  air,  and  retain  it  in  the  chest 
a  short  time,  and  then  breathe  into  the  jar,  and  instantly  close 
the  stop-cock.  Close  the  opening  of  the  jar  that  is  under  the 
water  with  a  piece  of  paper  laid  on  a  plate  of  sufficient  size  to 
cover  the  opening,  invert  the  jar,  and  sink  into  it  a  lighted  candle 
The  flame  will  be  extinguished  as  quickly  as  if  put  in  water.* 


*  As  a  substitute  for  a  jar  with,  a  stop-cock,  take  a  piece  of  lead 
pipe  bent  in  the  form  of  a  siphon,  and  insert  it  in  the  mouth  of  a 
reversed  jar.  This  experiment  is  as  conclusive  whether  the  air  is  in- 
kpled  once  only,  or  breathed  many  times. 

267 — 285.  Give  the  hygiene  of  the  respiratory  organs.  267.  What  is  ne- 
cessary that  man  may  enjoy  the  highest  degree  of  health  ?  What  propor- 
tion of  oxygen  and  nitrogen  should  the  inspired  air  contain  ?  268.  What 
is  the  difference  between  inspired  and  expired  air  ?  How  can  this  difTrr- 
<-mce  Ixj  shown  ? 


HYGIENE    OF    THE    RESPIRATORY    ORGANS.  99 

Remove  the  carbonic  acid  by  inverting  the  jar,  and  place  a  lighted 
candle  in  it,  and  the  flame  will  be  as  clear  as  when  out  of  the  jar. 

Observation.  It  is  familiarly  known  that  a  taper  will  not 
burn  where  carbonic  acid  exists  in  any  considerable  quantity, 
or  when  there  is  a  marked  deficiency  of  oxygen.  From  this 
originated  the  judicious  practice  of  sinking  a  lighted  candle  into 
a  well  or  pit  before  descending  into  it.  If  the  flame  is  extin- 
guished, respiration  cannot  there  be  maintained,  and  life  would 
be  sacrificed  should  a  person  venture  in  until  the  noxious  air 
is  removed. 

269.  Air,  in  which  lamps  will  not  burn  with  brilliancy,  is 
unfitted  for  respiration.  In  ci  Tvded  rooms,  which  are  not 
ventilated,  the  air  is  vitj§ted,  not  on./  by  a  decrease  of  oxygen 
and  an  increase  of  carbo/iic  acid,  but  by  the  waste,  injurious 
atoms  thrown  out  from  the  lungs  and  skin  of  the  audience. 
The  burning  lamps,  under  such  circumstances,  emit  but  a  feeble 
light.  Let  the  oxygen  gas  be  more  and  more  expended,  and 
the  lamps  will  burn  more  and  more  feebly,  until  nearly  ex 
tinguished. 

Illustrations.  1st.  The  effects  of  breathing  the  same  air 
again  and  again,  are  well  illustrated  by  an  incident  that  occurred 
in  one  of  our  halls  of  learning.  A  large  audience  had  assembled 
in  an  ill-ventilated  room,  to  listen  to  a  lecture  ;  soon  the  lamps 
burned  so  dimly  that  the  speaker  and  audience  were  nearly  en- 
veloped in  darkness.  The  oppression,  dizziness,  and  faintness, 
experienced  by  many  of  the  audience,  induced  them  to  leave  ; 
and  in  a  few  minutes  after,  the  lamps  were  observed  to  rekindle, 
owing  to  the  exchange  of  pure  air  on  opening  the  door,  which 
supplied  to  them  oxygen. 

2d.  The  "  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta  "  received  its  name  from 
the  fact,  that  one  hundred  and  forty-six  Englishmen  were  shut 

Why  should  a  lighted  candle  be  sunk  in  a  well  or  pit  before  a  person 
descends  into  it  ?  269.  How  is  the  air  of  crowded,  unventilated  roomj 
vitiated  ?  What  effect  has  such  air  upon  the  burning  lamps  ?  Give  an 
incident  that  illustrates  the  effects  of  impure  air  upon  burning  lamps. 


100  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

up  in  a  room  eighteen  feet  square,  with  only  two  small  windows 
on  the  same  side  to  admit  air.  On  opening  this  dungeon,  ten 
Hours  after  their  imprisonment,  only  twenty-three  were  alive. 
The  others  had  died  from  breathing  impure  air,  that  contained 
animal  matter  from  their  own  bodies. 

270.  Churches*    concert-halls,  and  school-rooms  should   be 
well  ventilated.     If  they  are  not,  the  persons  assembled  in  them 
will  be  restless,  and  complain  of  languor,  and  perhaps  head- 
ache.    These  unpleasant  sensations  are  caused  by  a  want,  of 
pure  air,  to  give  an  adequate  supply  of  oxygen  to  the  lungs. 

Observation.  In  all  school-rooms,  where  there  is  not  ade- 
quate ventilation,  it  is  advisable  to  have  a  recess  of  five  or  ten 
minutes  each  hour.  During  this  time^  let  the  pupils  breathe 
fresh  air,  and  open  the  doors  and  windows,  so  that  the  air  of  the 
room  shall  be  completely  changed. 

271.  While  occupying  a  room,  we  are  insensible  to  the  grad- 
ual vitiation  of  the  air.     This  is  the  result  of  the  diminished 
sensibility  of  the  nervous  system,  and  gradual  adaptation  of  the 
organs  to  blood  of  a  less  stimulating  character. 

272.  In   the   construction   of  every  inhabited   room,   there 
should  be  adequate  means  of  ventilation,  as  well  as  warming. 
No  room  is  well  ventilated,  unless  as  much  pure  air  is  brought 
into  it,  as  the  occupants  vitiate  at  every  respiration.     This  can 
be  effected  by  making  an  aperture  in  the  ceiling  of  the  room, 
or  by  constructing  a  ventilating  flue  in  the  chimney.     This 
should  be  in  contact  with  the  flues  for  the  escape  of  smoke,  but 
separated  from  them  by  a  thin  brick  partition. 

273.  Provision  should    also    be   made,  by  which   pure   air 
may  be  constantly  coming  into  the  room,  as  the  crevices  of  the 

Of  the  effects  of  breathing  impure  air.  270.  Why  should  churches  and 
school-rooms  be  well  ventilated  ?  What  suggestion  when  a  school-room  is 
not  well  ventilated  ?  271.  Why  are  we  insensible  of  the  vitiation  of  the 
lir  of  the  room  in  which  we  are  seated  ?  272.  What  is  very  important  in 
.he  construe  tion  of  every  inhabited  room  ?  How  can  a  room  be  n-ell  venti- 
ated  ?  273  Should  provision  be  made  to  have  pure  air  introduced  into 
room  ? 


HYGIENE    OF    THE    RESPIRATORY    ORGANS. 


10) 


doors  and  windows  are  not  sufficient.  There  should  be  ai 
aperture  at  or  near  the  floor,  to  connect  with  the  outer  walls  of 
the  building  or  external  air. 

274.  The  sick-room,  particularly,  should  be  so  arranged  that 
the  impure  air  may  escape,  and  pure  air  be  constantly  coming 
into  the  room.     Curtains  around  the  bed,  and  the  sheet  over  the 
face,  are  injurious.     The  effect  is  similar  to  that  produced  by 
sleeping  in  a  small,  unventilated  room. 

275.  The  change  that  is  effected  in  the  blood  while  passing 
through  the  lungs,  not  only  depends  upon  the  purity  of  the  air, 
but  the  amount  inspired.     The  quantity  varies  according  to  the 
size  of  the  chest,  and  the  movement -of  the  ribs  and  diaphragm. 

Fig.  60. 


Fig.  60.    The  skeleton  of  a  deformed  cliest. 
Fig.  61.    The  skeleton  of  a  well-formed  chest. 

276.  The  size  of  the  chest  and  lungs  can  "be  diminished  ly 
moderate  and  continued  pressure.  This  is  most  easily  done  in 
infancy,  when  the  cartilages  and  ribs  are  very  pliant ;  yet  it 
can  be  effected  at  more  advanced  periods  of  life. 

Observations.  1st.  The  Chinese,  by  compressing  the  feet  of 
female  children,  prevent  their  growth  ;  so  that  the  foot  of  a 

274.  What  rooms  particularly  should  be  well  ventilated  ?  Why  are  cur  • 
tains  around  abed  injurious  ?  275.  What  vaiies  the  amount  of  air  received 
into  the  lungs  ?  276.  How  can  the  size  of  the  chest  be  diminished  ?  What 
does  fig.  60  represent  ?  Fig.  61  ?  Give  observation  1st. 

9* 


102 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,   AND    HYGIENE. 


Chinese  belle  is  not  larger  than  the  foot  of  an  American  gin  of 
five  years. 

2d.  The  American  women  compress  their  chests,  to  prevent 
their  growth ;  so  that  the  chest  of  an  American  belle  is  not 
larger  than  the  chest  of  a  Chinese  girl  of  five  years.  Which 
country,  in  this  respect,  exhibits  the  greater  intelligence  ? 

3d.  The  chest  can  be  deformed  by  making  the  linings  of  the 
waists  of  the  dresses  tight,  as  well  as  by  corsets.  Tight  vesta, 
upon  the  same  principle,  are  also  injurious. 

Fig.  62.  Fig.  63. 


Fig.  62.  A  correct  outline  of  "the  Venus  de  Medici,  the  beau  ideal  of  female  sym- 
metry. 

Fig.  63.  An  outline  of  a  well-corseted  modern  beauty.  One  has  an  artificial, 
insect  waist ;  the  other,  a  natural  waist.  One  has  sloping  shoulders,  while  the  shoul- 
ders of  the  other  are  comparatively  elevated,  square,  and  angular.  The  proportion  of 
the  corseted  female  below  the  waist,  is  also  a  departure  from  the  symmetry  of  nature. 

277.  In  children,  who  have  never  worn  close  garments,  the 
circumference  of  the  chest  is  generally  about  equal  to  that  of 

Give  observation  2d.  How  may  the  chest  be  deformed  as  given  by  obser- 
vation 3d  ?  277.  What  is  the  size  of  the  chest  of  a  child  that  has  always 
worn  loose  clothing1? 


HYGIENE  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  ORGANS.        10^ 

me  body  at  the  hips;  and  similar  proportions  would  exist 
through  life,  if  there  were  no  improper  pressure  of  the  clothing. 
Those  persons  that  have  large,  full  chests,  particularly  at  the 
lower  part,  are  not  so  liable  to  diseases  of  the  lungs,  as  those 
who  have  narrow,  contracted  chests. 

278.  A  contracted  chest,  caused  either  by  injudicious  dress- 
ing, or  by   any  other  means,  can   be  enlarged,  although   the 
person  is  thirty  years  of  age,  by  permitting  the  muscles  that 
elevate  the  ribs  and  diaphragm  to  perform  their  proper  function. 

Observation.  Scholars,  and  persons  who  sit  much  of  the 
time,  should  frequently,  during  the  day,  breathe  full  and  deep, 
so  that  the  smallest  air-cells  maybe  fully  filled  with  air.  While 
exercising  the  lungs,  the  shoulders  should  be  thrown  back  and 
the  head  held  erect. 

279.  When  the  lungs  are  properly  filled  with  air,  the  chest 
is  enlarged  in  every  direction.     If  any  article  of  apparel  is 
worn  so  tight  as  to  prevent  the  full  expansion  of  the  chest  and 
abdomen,  the  lungs,  in  consequence,  do  not  receive  air  suffi- 
cient  to  purify   the  blood.     The  penalty  for  thus  violating  a 
law  of  our  being,  is  disease  and  suffering. 

Observation.  Many  individuals  do  not  realize  the  small 
amount  of  pressure  that  will  prevent  the  enlargement  of  the 
chest.  This  can  be  shown  by  drawing  a  tape  tightly  around 
the  lower  part  of  the  chest  of  a  vigorous  adult,  and  confining  it 
with  the  thumb  and  finger.  Then  endeavor  fully  to  inflate  the 
lungs,  and  the  movement  of  the  ribs  will  be  much  restricted. 

280.  The  position  in  standing  and  sitting  influences  the 
movement  of  t/ie  ribs  and  diaphragm.     When  the  shoulders  are 
thrown  back,  and  when  a  person  stands  or  sits  erect,  the  dia- 

What  persons  are  most  free  from  diseases  of  the  lungs  ?  278.  .  Can 
narrow,  contracted  chests  be  enlarged  ?  How  ?  What  practice  is  recom- 
mended to  scholars  and  sedentary  persons  ?  279.  What  is  the  effect  if  the 
apparel  is  worn  so  tight  as  to  prevent  the  full  expansion  of  the  chest  ?  How 
can  the_amount  of  pressure  necessary  to  prevent  the  enlargement  of  the 
chest  be  shown  ?  280.  Show  the  effect  of  position  on  the  movement  of  the 
ribs  and  diaphragm. 


104  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

phragm  and  ribs  have  more  freedom  of  mot-ion,  and  the  abdomi 
nal  muscles  act  more  efficiently  ;  thus  the  lungs  have  broadei 
range  of  movement,  than  when  the  shoulders  incline  forward 
and  the  body  is  stooping. 

281.  The  state  of  the  mind  exercises  a  great  influence  upon 
respiration.     If  we  are  depressed   by  grief,  or  feel  anxious 
about  friends  or  property,  the  diaphragm  and  muscles  that  ele- 
vate the  ribs  will  not  contract  with  the  same  energy  as  when  the 
mind  is  influenced  by  joy,  mirth,  and  other  enlivening  emotions. 
Consequently,  our  breathing  is  not  as  frequent  and  full  in  the 
former  as  in  the  latter  condition. 

282.  To  recover  persons  apparently  drowned,  it  is  necessary 
to  press  the  chest,  suddenly  and  forcibly,  downward  and  back- 
ward,  and   instantly   discontinue   the    pressure.     Repeat   this 
without  intermission,  until  a  pair  of  bellows  can  be  procured. 
When  the  bellows  are  obtained,  introduce  the  nozzle  well  upon 
the  base  of  the  tongue,  and  surround  the  mouth  and  nose  with 
a  towel  or  handkerchief,  to  close  them.     Let  another  person  press 
upon  the  projecting  part  of  the  neck,  called  "Adam's  apple," 
while  air  is  introduced  into  the  lungs  through  the  bellows.     Then 
press  upon  the  chest,  to  force  the  air  from  the  lungs,  to  imitate 
natural  breathing. 

283.  Continue  the  use  of  the  bellows,  and  forcing  the  air  out 
of  the  chest,  for  an  hour  at  least,  unless  signs  of  natural  breath- 
ing come  on.     Wrap  the  body  in  warm,  dry  blankets,  and  place 
:t  near  the  fire,  to  preserve  the  natural  warmth,  as  well  as  to 
impart  artificial  heat.     Every  thing,  however,  is  secondary  to 
filling  the  lungs  with  air.     Avoid  all  friction  until  breathing  is 
restored.     Send  for  medical  aid  immediately. 

284.  In  cases  of  apparent  death  from  hanging  or  stran- 
gling, the  knot  should  be  untied  or  cut  immediately  ;  then  use 
artificial  respiration,  or  breathing,  as  directed  in  apparent  death 

281.  Does  the  state  of  the  mind  influence  our  breathing  ?  2S.2.  How 
should  persons  apparently  drowned  be  treated  ?  284.  How  should  appa 
'*nt  death  from  strangling  be  managed  ? 


HYGIENE    OF   THE    RESPIRATORY    ORGANS.  105 

from  drowning.     In  asphyxia  from  electricity,  (lightning,)  arti- 
ficial respiration  should  be  resorted  to. 

Observation.  It  is  a  common  impression,  in  many  sections 
of  the  country,  that  the  law  will  not  allow  the  removal  of  the* 
cord  from  the  neck  of  a  body  found  suspended,  unless  the  cor- 
oner be  present.  It  is  therefore  proper  to  say,  that  no  such 
delay  is  necessary,  and  that  no  time  should  be  lost  in  attempting 
to  resuscitate  the  strangled  person. 

285.  When  life  is  apparently  suspended,  from  breathing 
carbonic  acid  gas,  the  person  should  be  carried  into  the  open 
air.  The  head  and  shoulders  should  be  slightly  elevated,  the 
face  and  chest  should  be  sponged  or  sprinkled  with  cold  water, 
or  cold  vinegar  and  water.  Apply  friction  to  the  skin,  with  a 
coarse  cloth  or  flesh-brush,  and  resort  to  artificial  respiration. 

Observation.  1st.  Many  persons  have  died  from  breathing 
carbonic  acid  that  was  formed  by  burning  charcoal  in  an  open 
pan  or  portable  furnace,  for  the  purpose  of  warming  their 
sleeping-rooms. 

2d.  In  resuscitating  persons  apparently  dead  from  the  already 
mentioned  causes,  if  a  pair  of  bellows  cannot  be  procured  im- 
mediately, let  their  lungs  be  inflated  by  air  expelled  from  the 
lungs  of  some  person  present.  To  have  the  expired  air  as  pure 
as  possible,  the  person  should  quickly  inflate  his  lungs,  and  in- 
stantly expel  the  air  into  those  of  the  asphyxiated  person.  Place 
the  patient  in  pure  air,  admit  attendants  only  into  the  apartment , 
and  send  for  a  physician  without  delay. 

What  treatment  should  be  adopted  in  asphyxia  from  lightning?  What 
is  said  of  the  impression,  common  in  some  sections  of  the  country,  \vhen 
a  body  is  found  suspended  ?  285.  What  should  be  done  when  carbonic 
acid  has  been  inhaled  ?  What  sad  results  frequently  follow  the  burning  of 
charcoal  in  a  close  room?  Give  the  2d  observation. 


106  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER    XXII. 

ANIMAL    HEAT. 

286.  THE  true  sources  of  animal  heat  are  still  imperfectly 
known.     We  see  certain  phenomena,  but  the  causes  are  hidden 
from  our  view.     Its  regular  production,  to  a  certain  degree,  is 
essential  both  to  animal  and  vegetable  life. 

287.  The  temperature  of  the  human  body  is  about  ninety- 
eight  degrees,  whether  we  examine  it  in  the  Icelander  in  his 
snowy  hut,  or  the  Negro  under  an  equatorial  sun. 

288.  To  enable  man  to  maintain  an  equilibrium  of  temper- 
ature under  such  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  naturally  suggests 
two  inquiries.      1st.    By  what  organs  is  animal  heat  generated  ? 
2d.    By  what  means  is  its  uniformity  maintained  ? 

289.  In  combustion,  or  burning  of  wood,  coal,  oil,  &c.,  the 
oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  unites  with  the  carbon  and  hydrogen 
of  these  substances,  and  carbonic  acid  and  watery  vapor  are 
produced.     This  process  is  attended  with  the  disengagement 
of  heat. 

290.  The   quantity   of  heat   disengaged   in   combustion   is 
always  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  carbon  and  hydrogen 
consumed  ;    thus   a   piece   of  wood  weighing   one    pound,  in 
burning  slowly,  would  give  out  the  same  quantity  of  heat  as  a 
pound  of  shavings  of  the  same  wood,  in  burning  rapidly.    Upon 
the  principle  of  combustion,  the  production  of  animal  heat  may 
be  understood. 

286 — 296.  What  is  said  respecting  animal  heat?  286.  Is  the  true  source 
of  animal  heat  known  ?  287.  What  is  the  temperature  of  the  human  body  ? 
288.  What  inquiries  are  naturally  suggested  ?  289.  What  takes  place  in  the 
combustion,  or  burning  of  wood,  oil,  &c.  ?  290.  Upon  what  does  the  quan 
vity  of  heat  disengaged  in  combustion  depend  ?  How  is  this  illustrated  ? 


ANIMAL    HEAT. 


107 


291.  As  before    mentioned,  the  food  contains   carbon  and 
hydrogen.     These   exist   in   the   chyle.     The  old   and  waste 
atoms  of  the  body,  likewise,  contain  the  same  elements.     It  is 
now  supposed  that  the  oxygen  of  the  inspired  air  enters  the. 
capillary  vessels  of  the  lungs,  and  mingles  with  the  blood,  with 
which  it  is  carried  to  the  heart,  and  from  thence  to  the  nutrient 
capillary  vessels  of  every  part  of  the  system. 

292.  In  the  capillary  vessels,  the   oxygen  of  the  arterial 
blood  unites  with  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  of  the  waste  atoms, 
(which  are  conveyed  into  the  blood  by  the  lymphatics,)  and 
carbonic  acid  and  water  are  formed. 

293.  This   change  of  state  among  the  particles  of  bodies 
is  attended  with  the  disengagement  of  heat.      The   carbonic 
acid  and  water  are  returned  to  the  lungs  in  the  blood,  and  car- 
ried out  of  the  body  by  the  expired  air.     The  inference  is,  that 
heat  is  generated  in  every  part  of  the  body. 

294.  Our  next  inquiry  is,  by  what  means  is  the  uniformity 
of  temperature  in  the  body  maintained  ?     It  has  been  ascer- 
tained that  the  principal  agent  in  keeping  the  body  at  a  uni- 
form temperature,  is  the  immense  evaporation  that  takes  place 
from  the  skin  and  lungs. 

295.  When  cold  air  comes  in  contact  with  these  membranes, 
heat  is  given  off  to  restore  the  equilibrium.     The  quantity  de- 
pends somewhat  on  the  rapidity  of  the  change  of  air.     And 
this  is  greatest  when  we  are  in  a  current  of  dry  air,  or  a  brisk 
wind  is  blowing  upon  us. 

296.  The  skin,  in  an  ordinary  state,  is  constantly  giving  out 
a  watery  fluid,  which  is  converted  into  vapor  and  carried  off  by 
the  surrounding  air.     To  effect  this,  heat  is  taken  from  the 
system,   and    the   conversion   of   the    perspiration   into   vapor 

291.  From  what  source  are  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  in  the  body  derived  ? 
The  oxygen  ?  292.  Show  how  heat  may  be  produced  in  every  part  of  the 
oody.  294.  What  is  the  principal  agent  by  which  a  uniform  tempera- 
ture of  the  body  is  maintained  ?  295.  What  is  the  effect  when  cold  air 
comes  in  contact  with  these  membranes  ?  When  is  the  greatest  amount 
of  heat  given  off?  296.  How  is  the  surplus  heat  of  the  body  removed. 


108  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,   AND    HYGIENE. 

conveys  a  large  proportion  of  the  surplus  heat  from  the  body  ; 
and  In  consequence,  the  temperature  is  maintained  at  ninety- 
eight  degrees. 

Observations.  1st.  In  all  ages  and  climes,  it  has  been 
observed,  that  the  increased  temperature  of  (he  skin  and 
system  in  fevers,  is  abated  as  soon  as  free  perspiration  is 
restored. 

2d.  In  damp,  close  weather,  as  during  the  sultry  days  of 
August,  we  feel  a  disagreeable  sensation  of  heat,  because  the 
saturation  of  the  air  by  moisture  prevents  the  escape  of  heat 
through  the  lungs  and  skin. 


HYGIENE   OF  ANIMAL  HEAT. 

297.  The  amount  of  heat  generated  in  the  human  system 
depends  upon  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  food,  ag-%  exer- 
cise, the  amount  and  character  of  the  inspired  air,  condition  of 
the  brain,  skin,  and  general  system. 

298.  Animal  heat  is  modified  by  the  proportion  of  carbon 
which  the  food   contains,  and  by  the  quantity  consumed      As 
the  kind  of  fuel  that  contains  the  greatest  amount  of  combus- 
tible  material  gives  off  the  most  heat  when  burned,  so  those 
articles  of  food  that  contain  the  greatest  quantity  of  carbon  pro- 
duce the  most  heat  when  converted  into  blood. 

299.  Age  is  another  influence  that  modifies  the  generation 
of  animal  heat.     The  vital  forces  of  the  child  being  feeble,  less 
heat  is  generated  in  its  system  than  in  that  of  an  adult.      Hence 
the  young  child,  and  the  enfeebled,  aged  person,  need  more 
clothing  than  the  vigorous  individual  of  middle  age. 

What  has  been  observed  in  all  ages  and  climes  ?  Why  do  we  feel  a  dis- 
agreeable sensation  of  heat  in  the  sultry  days  of  August  ?  297 — 304.  Give 
the  hygiene  of  animal  heat.  297.  On  what  does  the  amount  of  heat  gener- 
ated in  the  human  system  depend  ?  298.  What  element  of  the  food  in- 
fluences the  generation  of  heat  ?  299.  Does  age  modify  the  generation  of 
'ioat  ?  What  persons  need  the  most  clothing  ? 


HYGIENE  OF  ANIMAL  HEAT.  109 

300.  Exercise  is  an  influence  that  modifies  the  generation 
of  animal  heat.     Whatever  increases  the  flow  of  blood  in  the 
system,  increases  also  the  deposition  of  new  atoms  of  matter 
and  the  removal  of  the  waste  particles.    This  change  among  the 
particles  of  matter  is  attended  with  an  elevation  of  temperature. 
For  this  reason,  a  person  in  action  is  warmer  than  in  a  state 
of  repose. 

301.  The  amount  and  character  of  the  air  which  is  breathed, 
modify  the  heat   of  the  system.     In  the  generation  of  heat  in 
a  stove,  air,  or  oxygen,  is  as  essential  as  the  wood  or  coal.     It 
is  equally  so  in  the  production  of  animal  heat.     The  oxygen 
of  the  inspired  air  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  carbon  and 
hydrogen  to  be  consumed.     This  requires  capacious  lungs,  to- 
gether with  free  movements  of  the  ribs  and  diaphragm. 

302.  The  condition  of  the  brain  and  nervous  system  affects 
the  generation  of  animal  heat.     If  the  mind  is  aroused  from 
fear,  the  breathing  becomes  slow,  and  a  chilliness  pervades  the 
body,  particularly  the  extremities ;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
joyous  and  agreeable  emotions  quicken  the  circulation  of  the 
blood,  and  this  increases  the  generation  of  heat. 

303.  During  sleep,  when  the  brain  is  partially  inactive,  less 
heat  is  generated  than  when  awake.     This  is  one  reason  why 
an  individual  who  sleeps  in  "the  same  clothing  that  was  ade- 
quate to  prevent  chills  while  awake,  contracts  a  cold,  unless  he 
throws  over  him  an  additional  covering. 

304.  The  system  suffers  less  when  the  change  of  tempera- 
lure  is  gradual.     The  change  in  the  production  of  heat,  as 
well  as  in  the  evaporation  of  fluids  from  the  system,  is  gradual, 
when  not  influenced  bv  foreign  causes.     By  this  means,  the 
body  is  enabled  to  endure  tropical  heat  and  polar  cold. 

300.  What  effect  has  exercise  on  animal  heat  ?  301.  To  what  should  the 
oxygen  of  the  inspired  air  be  proportional  ?  302.  Mention  the  effects  of 
some  of  the  emotions  on  animal  heat.  303.  Why  do  we  need  more  cloth- 
ing when  asleep  than  when  awake  ?  304  How  is  the  body  enabled  to  en- 
dure tropical  heat  and  polar  cold  ? 

10 


10  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY,   AND    HYGIENK 


CHAPTER    XXIII. 

THE    VOICE. 

305.  THE   beautiful    mechanism  of  the   vocal    instrument, 
which  produces   every  variety  of  sound,  from   a   harsh,  un- 
melodious  tone,  to  a  soft,  sweet,  flute-like  sound,  can  never  be 
imitated  by  art.     It  has  been  compared,  by  many  physiologists, 
to  a  wind,  reed,  and  stringed  instrument.     This  inimitable,  yet 
simple  instrument,  is  the  Lar'ynx. 

ANATOMY  OF  THE  VOCAL  ORGANS. 

306.  The  LARYNX  (Adam's  apple)  is  a  kind  of  cartilaginous 
tube,  which,  taken  as  a  whole,  has  the  general  form  of  a  hollow 
reversed  cone,  with  its  base  upward  toward  the  tongue,  in  the 
shape  of  an  expanded  triangle. 

307.  It   is   composed   of  several   pieces   of  cartilage,  that 
not    only   connect   with    each    6ther,   but  with    the    tongue, 
lower  jaw,  and  trachea. 

308.  There   are   stretched    across   the   cavity    formed    by 
these   cartilages,  four  folds  of  membrane,  two  on  each  side, 
called  vocal  cords. 

309.  The  space  between  the  cords  on  each  side  is  called 
the  glot'lis,  or  chink  of  the  glottis.     The  cavity  between  the 
upper  and  lower  vocal    cords    is    called  the  ventricle  of  the 
larynx. 

305 — 310.  Give  the  anatomy  of  the  vocal  organs.  305.  What  is  said  of  the 
structure  of  the  vocal  instrument  ?  What  instruments  have  physiologists 
compared  it  with  ?  What  is  the  vocal  instrument  called  ?  306.  Describe 
the  larynx.  307.  Of  what  is  it  composed  ?  308.  Describe  the  vocal  cords 
309.  What  is  the  space  between  these  cords  called  ? 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  VOCAL  ORGANS. 


Ill 


310.  Behind  the  base  of  the  tongue,  is  a  piece  of  car 
tilage,  resembling  a  leaf  of  parsley,  called  the  ep-i- glottis. 
The  duty  of  this  sentinel  is  to  keep  the  food  and  drink 
rom  passing  into  the  air-passage,  or  trachea.* 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  VOCAL  ORGANS. 

311.  In  the  formation  of  the  voice,  each  part  already  de- 
scribed performs  an  important  office.  The  cartilages  give  form 
and  stability  to  the  larynx,  and  by  the  action  of  muscles  attache'! 
to  them,  the  width  of  the  glottis  is  varied. 


Fig.  62. 


Fig.  63. 


Fig.  62.  A  side  view  of  the  cartilages  of  the  larynx.  1,  The  bone  at  the  root  of 
the  tongue.  3,  4,  5,  6,  Cartilages  of  the  larynx.  7,  The  trachea. 

Fig.  63.  A  section  of  the  larynx.  1,  1,  The  upper  vocal  cords.  2,  2,  The  lower 
vocal  cords.  3,  3,  The  glottis.  4,  4,  The  ventricles  of  the  larynx. 

312.  When  air  is  forcibly  driven  from  the  lungs  through 
the  glottis,  it  causes  a  vibration,  or  trembling  of  the  vocal 
cords.  This  produces  sound  ;  and  it  is  varied  hy  the  tongue, 
the  teeth,  and  the  lips. 

310.  "SVhere  is  the  epiglottis  situated?  311,  313.  Give  the  function  of 
the  vocal  organs.  311.  Of  what  use  are  the  cartilages  of  the  larynx  ? 
What  does  fig.  62  represent  ?  Fig.  63  ?  312.  How  is  sound  produced  ? 


112  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,   AND    HYGIENE. 

313.  The  size  of  the  larynx,  the  capacity  and  health  of  the 
ungs,  the  condition  of  the  throat  and  nasal  passages,  the  eleva- 
tion and  depression  of  the  chin  and  tongue,  and  the  state  of  the 
mind,  influence  the  modulations  of  sound. 


HYGIENE  OF  THE  VOCAL  ORGANS. 

314.  Common   observation   shows   that   the   voice   can    be 
changed   and   modified   by   the    habits;    sailors,   smiths,   and 
others,  who   are   engaged   in   noisy   occupations,   exert   their 
vocal  organs  more  strongly  than  those  of  more  quiet  pursuits. 
This   not  only  affects  the  structure  of  the  vocal  organs,  but 
varies  the  intonations  of  the  voice. 

315.  The  voice  is  strong  in  proportion  to  the  development 
of  the  larynx,  and   the   capacity  of  the   chest.     Singing   and 
reading  aloud,  improve  and  strengthen  the  vocal  organs,  and 
give  a  healfhy  expansion  to  the  chest.     The  enunciation  of  the 
elementary  sounds  of  the  English  language,  aids  in  developing 
the  vocal  organs,  as  well  as  preventing  disease  of  the  throat 
and  lungs,  (laryngitis  and  bronchitis.) 

316.  The  attitude  also  affects  the  modulation  of  the  voice. 
When  an  individual  stands  or  sits  with  the  head  and  trunk  erect, 
the  movements  of  the  whole  respiratory  apparatus  are   most 
free  and  effective.      Sound,  in  consequence,  is  more   clear  and 
distinct. 

Experiment.  Head  with  the  head  bowed  forward  and  the 
chin  depressed  ;  then  read  with  the  head  erect  and  the  chin  ele- 
vated, and  the  difference  in  the  movement  of  the  vocal  organs, 
together  with  the  difference  in  the  voice,  will  be  manifest. 


313.  What  influences  the  modulation  of  sound  ?  314 — 321.  Give  the 
hygiene  of  the  vocal  organs.  314.  What  does  observation  show  in  reference 
to  the  voice  ?  315.  How  may  the  voice  be  strengthened  ?  316.  Wh;>( 
effect  has  the  erect  attitude  upon  the  modulations  of  the  voice  ?  Sia%j 
the  oxperiment. 


HYGIENE    OF    THE    VOCAL    OK(!AN>. 

Fig.  64.  Fig.  65. 


113 


Fig.  64.    An  improper  position,  but  one  not  unfrequently  seen  in  some  of  our  com- 
mon schools,  and  in  some  of  our  public  speakers. 
Fig.  65.     The  proper  position  for  reading,  speaking,  and  singing. 

317.  TJie  muscles  of  the  neck  should  not  be  compressed. 
If  the  muscles  of  the  neck  and  larynx  are  compressed  by  a 
high  cravat,  or  other  close  dressing,  not  only  will  the  free  and 
forcible  use  of  these  parts  be  impeded,  but  the  tones,  instead  of 
being  clear  and  varied,  will  be  feeble  and  ineffective. 

Observations.  1st.  The  loss  of  voice  which  is  prevalent 
among  public  speakers,  may  be  ascribed  in  part  to  the  in- 

What  is  represented  by  fig.  64  ?  By  fig.  65  ?  317.  "Why  should  not  the 
muscles  of  the  neck  be  compressed  ?  What  is  a  common  cause  of  loss  of 
TO  ice  : 

10  * 


114  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

judicious  dressing  of  the   neck,  and  improper  position  when 
standing. 

2d.  When  individuals  have  been  addressing  an  audience  in 
a  warm  room,  or  engaged  in  singing,  they  should  avoid  all 
impressions  of  a  cold  atmosphere,  unless  adequately  protected 
by  an  extra  garment. 

318.  The  opening  of  the  jaws,  and  condition  of  the  nasal 
passages  and  throat,  modify  the  voice.     The   enunciation  of 
words  is  rendered  more  or  less  distinct,  in  proportion  as  the 
jaws  are  separated  in  speaking,  and  the  throat  and  nasal  pas- 
sages are  free  from  obstruction. 

319.  Repetition   is   essential    to    distinct    articulation   of 
words.     In  teaching  a  child  to  articulate  a  letter  or  word,  in 
the  first  instance,  make  an  effort  to  induce  a  proper  state  of 
the  vocal  organs  by  which  the  particular  sound  is  produced. 
Repeat   the   letter   or  word  again  and  again,  until  it  can  be 
uttered  with  accuracy. 

Observation.  The  drawling  method  of  talking  to  young 
•.hildren,  as  well  as  using  words  that  are  not  found  in  any 
written  language,  (called  baby  talk,)  is  decidedly  wrong.  A 
child  will  pronounce  and  understand  the  application  of  a  cor- 
rect word  as  quickly  as  an  incorrect  one. 

320.  When  foreign  bodies,  such  as  cherry-stones,  buttons, 
&c.,  get  into  the  throat,  they  cause  excessive  irritation,  and 
sometimes  death.     It  is  not  necessary  to  ascertain  which  pas- 
sage the  foreign  body  is  in,  for  the  immediate  treatment  ought 
in  either  case  to  be  the  same. 

321.  Some  person  should  place  one  hand  on  the  front  of 
the  chest  of  the  sufferer,  and,  with  the  other,  give  two  or  three 
smart  blows   upon  the  back,  allowing  a  few  seconds  to  inter- 
vene between   them. 

Give  2d  observation.  318.  Does  the  condition  of  the  throat  and  nasal 
passages  modify  the  voice  ?  319.  Is  repetition  essential  to  distinct  articu- 
lation ?  "What  method  is  suggested  in  teaching  a  child  to  articulate  letters 
or  words  ?  Give  observation.  320.  What  should  be  done  when  foreign 
bodies  get  into  the  throat  ? 


ANATOMY    OF    THE    SKIN  115 


CHAPTER    XXIV. 

THE    SKIN. 

322.  THE  skin  is  a  membranous  covering,  enveloping  the 
bones  and  other  parts  of  the  system.     In  youth,  and  in  females 
particularly,  it  is  smooth,  soft,  and  elastic.     In  middle  age,  and 
in  males,  it  is  firm,  and  rough  to  the  touch.     In  old  age,  in 
persons  who  are  emaciated,  and  about  the  flexions  of  the  joints, 
it  is  thrown  into  folds. 

ANATOMY  OF  THE    SKIN. 

323.  The  skin  of  the  human  body   is   composed  of  two 
layers  of  membrane,  namely,  the  cu'ti-cle,  and  the  cu'tis  ve'ra, 
or  true  skin. 

'  324.  The  CUTICLE,  or  that  part  of  the  skin  which  is  seen  by 
the  eye,  is,%t  first,  a  fluid  thrown  out  by  the  blood-vessels  over 
the  internal  %yer  of  this  membrane. 

325.  While  layere  of  this  fluid  are  continually  forming 
on  the  upper  surface  of  the  true  skin,  the  external  layers  of 
the  fluid  become  dry,  and  resemble  small  scales. 

Illustrations.  The  cuticle  is  that  part  of  the  skin  which  is 
raised  by  a  blister.  Sometimes  from  disease,  as  erysipelas,  or 
fever,  it  comes  off  from  the  surface  of  the  body  in  pieces  of 
considerable  size. 

322.  What  is  the  skin  ?  Mention  its  different  appearances  in  its  differ- 
ent conditions  in  the  human  frame.  323 — 336.  Give  the  anatomy  of  the 
skin.  323.  How  many  layers  of  membrane  has  the  skin  ?  What  are  they 
called  ?  324.  How  is  the  cuticle  first  formed  ?  325.  What  is  the  appear- 
ance of  the  external  layers  ?  Give  illustration 


116  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

326.  The  arrangement  of  the  cuticle,  in  different  parts  of 
the  human  body,  is  worthy  of  notice.     Where  feeling  is  most 
acute,  the  cuticle  is  delicate  and  thin.     Where  there  is  motion, 
as  over  the  joints,  it  is  lax  and  movable.     Where  it  is  in  con 
slant  use,  it  becomes  harder  and  thicker. 

Illustration.     The  soles  of  the  feet  and  the  pa*  .us  of  the 
hands  afford  good  examples  of  the  cuticle  thickened  by  use. 

327.  This  part  of  the  skin  has  no  blood-vessels  or  nerves , 
consequently,  a  needle  may  be  passed  under  it,  to  some  extent 
and  cause  no  pain,  nor  will  any  blood  ooze  from  it. 

Fig.  66. 


Fig.  66.  1, 1,  The  cuticle.  2,  2,  The  colored  layer  of  the  cuticle.  4,  4,  The  net 
work  of  nerves.  5,  5,  The  true  skin.  6,  6,  6,  Three  nerves  that  divide  to  form  the 
net-work,  (4,  4.) 

328.  The  cuticle,  when  clean,  looks  like  a  thin  shaving  of 
soft,  clear  horn ;  but  when  filled  with  dust  and  other  foul 
matter,  it  becomes  dark-colored. 

Observation.     The  hair  and  nails,  also  the  hoofs  of  animals, 

326.  Mention  the  arrangement  of  the  cuticle  in  different  parts  of  the 
body.  What  parts  of  the  body  afford  examples  of  the  cuticle  thickened  by 
use  ?  327.  Has  the  cuticle  blood-vessels  or  nerves  ?  323.  What  is  the 
general  appearance  of  the  cuticle  ?  Give  observation 


ANATOMY    OF    THE    SKIN.  117 

•e  appendages  of  the  skin.  They  are  so  connected  with  the 
.uticle,  that  by  scalding  they  come  off  with  this  tissue. 

329.  In  the  inner  and  newly-formed  layers  of  the  cuticle, 
there  exists  a  peculiar  kind  of  paint.     This  colored  layer,  in  the 
Negro,  is  black ;  in  the  Indian,  copper-colored ;  in  the  Euro- 
pean, it  is  very  light,  differing,  however,  in  different  persons. 

330.  The  CUTIS  VERA,  or  true  skin,  is  so  called,  because 
it  is   the    most  essential   of  the   two   layers   of  the   skin.     It 
contains  several  sets  of  vessels,  namely,  Arteries,  Veins,  and 
Lymphatics.     Beside  these  vessels,  there  are  found  both  Oil 
and  Perspiratory  (sweat)   Glands,  and  Nerves.    . 

331.  The  ARTERIES  and  VEINS  form  a  net- work  upon  the 
surface  of  the  true  skin ;  hence,  cut  any  part  of  this  layer  of  the 
skin,  and  it  will  bleed.     By  the  arteries  the  skin  is  nourished. 

Observation.  When  this  layer  of  the  skin  is  descroyed  by 
cuts  or  burns,  it  is  never  formed  again,  and  produces  scars 
which  do  not  disappear. 

332.  The  NERVES,  like  the  blood-vessels,  are  very  numer- 
ous, for  no  part  of  the  skin  can  be    pricked   or   cut  without 
giving  pain.     The  minute  extremities  of  these  nerves,  together 
with  the  capillary   vessels,  form  small,  conical    prominences, 
called  pa-pil'lcR.     (Fig.  68.) 

Observatio7i.  These  prominences  can  be  seen  in  the  palm 
of  the  hand  and  sole  of  the  foot.  On  the  ends  of  the  fingers 
they  are  curiously  arranged  ;  some  in  concentric  ovals ;  others 
pursue  a  serpentine  course. 

333.  The  LYMPHATICS  are  those  small  vessels  which  open 
upon  the  inner  layers  of  the  cuticle.     These  vessels  are  called 

329.  What  is  found  in  the  inner  and  newly-formed  layers  of  the  cuticle  ? 
WTiat  color  is  it  in  the  Negro  ?  Indian  ?  European  ?  330.  Why  is  the  cuds 
vcra  so  called  ?  What  does  it  contain  ?  What  vessels  exist  in  this  layer 
beside  the  last  mentioned  ?  331.  What  do  the  arteries  and  veins  form 
upon  the  true  skin  ?  By  what  vessel  is  the  skin  supplied  with  blood  ? 
What  is  formed  when  the  true  skin  is  destroyed  by  cuts  or  burns  ? 
332.  What  is  said  of  the  nerves  of  the  true  skin  ?  How  are  the  papillae 
formed  ?  Where  may  they  be  seen  ?  333.  What  are  the  lymphatics  of  the 
skin  ? 


118 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


into  action  when  ointments  are  rubbed  on  the  skin ;  i.nd  also  in 
vaccination,  to  prevent  the  small-pox. 

334.  The  PERSPIRATORY  APPARATUS  consists  of  minute  tubes, 
which  pass  inward  through  the  cuticle,  and  terminate  in  the 
deeper  meshes  of  the  true  skin.     In  their  course,  each  little 
tube  forms  a  beautiful  spiral  coil ;  and,  on  arriving  at  its  desti- 
nation, coils,  upon  itself  in  such  a  way  as  to  constitute  an  oval- 
shaped,  or  globular  ball,  called  the  perspiratory  gland.    * 

335.  The  OIL-GLANDS  are  small  bodies  embedded  in  the  true 
skin.     They  connect   with  the  surface  of  the  skin   by  small 
tubes,  which  traverse  the  cuticle.     In  some  parts  these  glands 
are  wanting;  in  others,  where  their  office  is  most  needful, 

are  abundant ;  as  on  the  nose,  the  head,  e\:d  the  ears. 


Fig.  67.  1,  2,  3,  Oil-glands  and  tubes  from  different  parts  of  the  body.  A,  A,  & 
Glanu>.  B,  B,  B,  The  ducts  of  these  glands.  4,  An  oil-gland,  and  tube  from  th 
scalp.  The  glands  (A)  form  a  cluster  around  the  tube  of  the  hair,  (C.)  These  dnct» 
open  into  the  sheath  of  the  hair,  (B.)  The  figures,  from  1  to  4,  are  magnified  thirty 
eight  diameters. 

Observation.      When  there  is  an  unnatural  accumulation  of 
on  in  the  tubes,  it  produces  the  "  worm,"  or  "  grub." 

334.  Of  what  does  the  perspiratory  apparatus  consist?  335.  Describe 
the  oil-giands.  What  is  said  of  their  distnoution  ?  Explain  fig.  67 
What  does  an  unnatural  accumulation  of  this  oily  matter  produce  ? 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF    THE    SKIN.  119 


CHAPTER    XXV 

PHYSIOLOGY    OF    THE    SKIN. 

336.  THE  skin  invests  the  whole  of  the  external  surface  of 
tne  body,  following  all  its  prominences  and  curves,  and  gives 
protection  to  all  the  organs  it  encloses,  while  each  of  its  several 
parts  has  a  distinct  use. 

337.  The  cuticle  is  insensible,  and  serves  as  a  sheath  of  pro- 
tection to  the  highly  sensitive  skin  (cutis  vera)  situated  beneath 
it.     The  latter  feels;   but   the  former   blunts   the   impression 
which  occasions  feeling. 

338.  The  cuticle,   also,  prevents  disease,  by  impeding  the 
evaporation  of  the  fluids  of  the  true  skin,  and  the  absorption  of 
the  poisonous  vapors,  which  necessarily  attend  various  employ- 
ments.    It,  however,  affords  protection  to  the  system  only  when 
unbroken,  and  then  to  the  greatest  degree,  when  covered  with 
a  proper  amount  of  oily  secretion  from  the  oil-glands. 

339.  The  nerves  of  the  skin  are  the  organs  of  the  sense  ol 
touch  and  feeling.     Through  them  we  receive  many  impressions 
that  increase  our  pleasures  ;  as,  the  grateful  sensations  imparted 
by  the  cooling  breeze  in  a  warm  day.     In  consequence  of  their 
sensitiveness,  we  are  individually  protected,  by  being  warned 
of  the  nearness  of  destructive  agents. 

340.  A  large  proportion  of  the  waste  of  the  body  passes 
through  the  outlets  of  the  skin ;  some  portions  in  the  form  of 
oh1  -  others  in  the  form  of  watery  vapor  and  carbonic  acid. 

336 — 346.  Gire  the  physiology  of  the  skin.  336.  "What  is  said  of  the  skin  r 
337.  Mention  a  function  of  the  cuticle.  338.  Give  another  use  of  the 
cuticle.  339.  Of  what  use  are  the  nerves  of  the  skin  ?  340.  Through 
what  membrane  does  a  large  proportion  of  the  waste  atoms  of  the  body  pass  ? 


120 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYCJIENE. 


341.  The  oily  fluid  with  which  the  skin  is  bedewed,  is  sep 
urated  from  the  blood  by  means  of  the  oil-glands.    This  secre- 
tion is  spread  over  those  parts  of  the  skin  most  exposed  to  the 
changes  of  temperature  and  moisture.     The  action  of  these 
glands  renders  the  skin  soft,  and    it   is  also  one  source  by 
which  the  blood  is  purified. 

342.  The  perspiratory  glands  separate  from  the  blood  the 
perspiration,  or  sweat.    There  are  more  than  two  thousand  of 
these  glands,  with  ducts,  in  every  square  inch  of  skin,  and  more 
than  five  million  of  them  in  this  natural  covering  of  the  body. 


F:V.  68. 


i  g.  08.  1, 1,  The  lines  or  ridges  of  the  cuticle,  cut  perpendicularly  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  The 
fun  ws  or  wrinkles  ot  the  same.  3,  The  cuticle.  4,  4,  The  colored  layer  of  the 
cuticle.  5,  5,  The  cutis  vera.  6,  6,  6,  6,  6,  Th3  papillae,  each  of  which  answers  to 
the  lines  on  the  external  surface  of  the  skin.  7,7,  Small  furrows  between  the  pa- 
pillae. 8,  8,  8,  8,  The  deeper  furrows  between  each  couple  of  the  papilla;.  9,  9,  Cells 
filled  with  fat.  10,  10, 10,  The  adipose  layer,  with  numerous  fat  vesicles.  12,  Two 
hairs.  13,  A  perspiratory  gland,  with  its  spiral  duct.  14,  Another  perspiratory  pland, 
with  a  duct  less  spiral.  15,  15,  Oil-glands  with  ducts  opening  into  the  sheath  of  the 
hair,  (12.) 

341.  "What  is  the  use  of  the  oil-glands  ?  342.  What  is  the  use  of  the 
perspiratory  glands  ?  How  many  of  these  glands  with  ducts  uj>c»n  rverv 
squar°  inch  of  skin  ? 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE    SKIN.     %  121 

343.  In  health,  these  glands  are  in  constant  action,  and  the 
skin  is  moist.     When  this  moisture  cannot  be  seen,  it  is  called 
insensible  perspiration.     When  it  can  be  seen  in  drops,  it  is 
called  sensible  perspiration. 

Experiment.  Put  the  hand  into  a  cold,  dry,  glass  jar,  or  any 
glass  vessel,  and  wind  around  the  wrist  and  mouth  of  the  jar  a 
handkerchief.  In  a  few  minutes,  the  inside  of  the  jar  will  be 
covered  with  moisture  from  the  hand. 

344.  The   function  of  these   glands  is    very    necessary  to 
aealth.     During  twenty-four  hours,  from  twenty  to  thirty  ounces 
of  waste,  useless  matter  passes  out  of  the  body  by  these  ducts, 
or  through  the  pores  of  the  skin. 

345  If  perspiration  is  suppressed  from  disorder  of  the  skin 
or  cold,  the  whole  of  this  injurious  matter  is  circulated  through 
the  system  by  the  blood,  disturbing  the  action  of  the  lungs, 
stomach,  and  other  organs. 

346.  Many  cases  of  chronic  coughs,  headache,  dyspepsia, 
and  diarrhoea,  originate  in  this  way.  If  any  one  organ  of  the 
system  has  been  weakened,  this  organ  is  more  susceptible  of 
disease  than  others.  In  persons  whose  lungs  are  weak  or 
diseased,  a  chill  will  immediately  cause  an  irritation  and  often 
inflammation  of  these  organs.  If  an  individual  is  predisposed 
to  stiffness  of  the  joints  and  rheumatic  pains,  a  chill  will  affect 
these  diseased  parts. 

343.  When  is  perspiration  called  insensible  ?  When  sensible  ?  344.  How 
many  ounces  of  waste  matter  pass  through  the  skin  in  twenty-four  hours  ? 
34-5.  What  is  the  effect  if  perspiration  is  "checked"?  346.  What  is  the 
result  if  any  organ  of  the  body  is  weakened  or  diseased  ? 

Note.     Let  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  skin  be  reviewed  from 
fig.  68,  or  from  anatomical  outline  plate  9 
11 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER    XXVI. 

HYGIENE    OF    THE    SKIN. 

347.  THE  sensibility  of  the  skin,  and  the  activity  of  the  oil 
and  perspiratory  glands,  are  modified  by  the  condition  of  the 
cuticle,  the  temperature  of  the  skin  and  body,  the  purity  ind 
warmth  of  the  air,  and  the  character  of  the  light  to  which  the 
body  is  exposed. 

348.  To  maintain  a  healthy  action  of  every  part  of  this 
membrane,  attention  to  clothing,  bathing,  light,  and  air,  is  of 
great  practical  importance. 

349.  CLOTHING,  in  itself,  does  not  bestow  heat,  but  is  chiefly 
useful  in  preventing  the  escape  of  heat  from  the  body,  and  in 
defending  it  from  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere.     In  select- 
ing and  applying  clothing  to  our  persons,  the  following  sugges- 
tions should  be  observed. 

350.  The  material  for  clothing  should  be  a  bad  conductor  of 
heat ;  that  is,  it  should  have  little  tendency  to  conduct,  or  remove 
heat  from  the  body.     This  depends  on  the  property  possessed 
by  the  material  in  retaining  atmospheric  air  in  its  meshes. 

351.  Moisture  renders  clothing  a  good  conductor  of  heat. 
Thus  all  articles  of  apparel  should  not  only  be  non-conductors 
of  heat,  but  should  not  possess  the  property  of  absorbing  and 
retaining  moisture. 

347 — 373.  Give  the  hygiene  of  the  skin.  347.  What  influences  modify 
the  action  of-the  oil  and  perspiratory  glands  ?  348.  To  what  must  atten- 
tion be  given  to  maintain  a  healthy  action  of  the  skin  ?  349.  Does  clothing 
bestow  heat  ?  What  is  its  use  ?  350.  Mention  a  property  that  the  material 
for  clothing  should  possess  ?  351.  What  property  in  the  selection  of 
clothing  should  we  avoid  ? 


HYGIENE    OF    THE    SKIN.  123 

•  352.  Woollen  cloth  retains  more  air  in  its  meshes  than  any 
other  article  except  furs,  and  it  absorbs  but  very  little  moisture. 
Consequently,  it  is  an  excellent  article  for  clothing. 

353.  Cotton  contains  less  air  in  its  meshes  than  woollen,  but 
much  more  than  linen.     In  texture,  it  is  smoother  than  wool, 
and  less  liable  to  irritate  the  skin.     This  fabric  absorbs  moisture 
in  a  small  degree.     In  all  respects,  it  is  well  adapted  for  gar- 
ments worn  next  the  skin. 

354.  The  clothing  should  be  of  a  porous  cJiaracter.     The 
skin  is  not  only  an  important  agent  in  separating  from  the  blood 
those  impurities  that  otherwise  would  oppress  the  system  and 
occasion  death,  but  it  exercises  great  influence  in  respiration. 
C^psequently,  the  apparel  should  be  made  of  a  material  thnt 
will  permit  the  air  to  pass  through  its  meshes. 

355.  The   clothing   should   be   not   only  porous,  but  fitted 
loosely.     The  garments  should   retain  a  layer  of  air  between 
them  and  the  body.     Every  one  is  practically  aware  that  a 
loose  dress  is  much  warmer  than  one  which  fits  closely ;  that 
a  loose  glove,  boot  or  shoe,  afford  greater  warmth  than  those  of 
smaller  dimensions. 

356.  More   clothing   is   necessary  when   a  vital   organ  is 
diseased.     When  vital  organs,  as  the  lungs,  heart,  &c.,  are 
diseased,  less  heat  is  generated  in  the  body.     For  this  reason, 
in  consumption,  dyspepsia,  and  even  headache,  the  skin  is  pale 
and  the  extremities  cold. 

357.  More  clothing  is  required  in  the  evening  than  during 
'the  day.     In  the  evening  we  have  less  vital  energy,  and,  there- 
fore, less  heat  is  generated  in  the  system,  than  in  the  early  part 
of  the   day  ;   beside,  the  atmosphere  is  damp,  the  skin    has 
become  moist  from  perspiration,  and  heat,  in  consequence,  is 
rapidly    removed  from  the   body.     For  this  reason,  when   re 

352.  Give  the  properties  of  woollen  cloth.  353.  What  are  the  quali- 
ties of  cotton  as  an  article  of  dress  ?  354.  Why  should  the  material  i'oi 
clothing  be  porous  ?  355.  Why  should  garments  be  fitted  loosely  : 

356.  Why  do  we  need  more  clothing  when  the  lungs  or  brain  is  diseased  ? 

357.  Why  do  we  need  more  clothing  in  the  evening  than  during  the  day  ? 


124  ANATOMY,    PHY&iOLOUrY,   AND    HYGIENE. 

turning  from  crowded  assemblies,  we  should  be  provided  witb 
an  extra  garment. 

358.  A  person  of  active  habits  requires  less  clothing  than 
one  of  sedentary  employments ;  for  exercise  increases  the  cir- 
culation of  the  blood,  which  is  always  attended  with  the  disen- 
gagement of  a   greater    quantity  of  heat;    consequently,    an 
increase  of  warmth  is  felt  throughout  the  system. 

359.  An  excessive,  as  well  as  an   insufficient,  amount  of 
clothing  is  alike  injurious.     The  custom  of  wearing  an  undue 
amount  on  some  parts  of  the  body,  and  leaving  exposed  the 
arms   and    upper   part   of    the   chest,   cannot   be    too    highly 
censured. 

360.  The  clothing  should  be  kept  clean.     No  article  of  ap- 
parel is  entirely  free  from  absorption  ;  even  wool  and  cotton 
possess  it  in  a  small  degree.     They  take  up  a  portion  of  the 
perspired  fluids,  and  thus  the  fibres  of  the  cloth  become  covered 
with  the  waste  matter  contained  in  the  perspiration.     A  neglect 
of  a  frequent  change  of  apparel,  is  one  cause  of  disease  with 
many  persons,  particularly  the  poorer  classes  in  the  community. 

361.  The  clothing  in  which  we  sleep,  as  well  as  beds  and 
bed-clothes,  should  be  aired  every  day.     if  this  is  not  done,  the 
moist  bedding  will  cause  a  chill,  and  the  perspired  matter  may 
De  carried  into  the  system  of  the  next  occupant.     Many  dis- 
eases are  thus  contracted. 

362.  When  Hie  clothing  has  become  wet,  it  is  best  to  change 
It  immediately.     The  skin  should  then  be  rubbed  with  a  dry, 
crash  towel,  until  reaction,  indicated   by  redness,  is  produced. 
If  the  garments  are  not  changed,  the   person  should  exercise 
moderately,  so  that  sufficient  heat  may  continue  to  be  generated 
in  the  system  to  dry  the  clothing  and  skin  without  a  chill. 

,358.  Why  does  the  active  laborer  require  less  clothing  than  a  person  of 
sedentary  employment  ?  3-59.  Is  too  much  as  well  as  too  little  clothing 
injurious?  360.  Why  should  the  clothing  be  kept  clean?  What  arises 
from  neglect  of  a  frequent  change  of  apparel  ?  361.  Why  should  beds  and 

•ed-clothes  that  are  used  be  aired  every  day  ?     362.  What   is  necessary 

-  h^n  the  clothing  has  become  wet  ? 


HYGIENE    OF    THE    SKIN.  l!£> 

363.  Changes  of  dress,  from  thick  to  thin,  should  always  he 
made  in  the  morning,  for  then  the  vital  powers  are  in  full  play. 
Sudden  changes  in  wearing  apparel,  as  well  as   in  food  and 
general    habits,  are  attended  with  hazard  ;  and  this  is  propor- 
tionate to  the  weakness  or  exhaustion  of  the  body  when  the 
change  is  made. 

364.  BATHING  is  necessary,  in   order  that  the  perspirable 
matter   may  pass  freely  through .  the  •'  pores "  of  the   skin. 
The  whole   body  should    be    bathed  frequently,  as    perspira- 
tion is  not  confined  to  the  face  and  hands. 

365.  Cold  water — or  water  at  about   seventy  degrees   in 
summer,  and  eighty  degrees  in  winter  —  is  more  strengthening 
to  the  system  than  water  that  is  warmer. 

366.  No  person  should  bathe  when  the  body  is  fatigued, 
either  by  mental   or  physical  labor,  or  immediately  after  a 
meal.     The  best  time  for  bathing,  particularly  for  sick  per- 
sons, is  about  two  hours  after   breakfast.     Persons  in  health 
may  bathe  in  the  morning,  or  in  the  evening. 

367.  The  sponge  bath  is,  perhaps,  the   simplest  and  best 
method  of  bathing.     In  this  but  a  small  portion  of  the  surface 
of  the  skin  is  exposed  to  the  air,  and  the  brisk  rubbing  that 
immediately  follows  the  wet  sponge,  prevents  a  chill  of  the 
skin.     No   colds  would  be  contracted    in   bathing,  if  persons 
would  wipe  dry,  and  use  friction  with  a  coarse  towel  or  flesh- 
brush,  until  redness  or  warmth  of  the  skin  is  produced. 

368.  The  AIR  is  an  agent  of  importance  in  the  functions  of 
the  skin.     It  imparts  to  this  membrane  oxygen,  and  receives 
from  it  carbonic  acid.     It  also  removes  from  it  a  large  portion 
of  the  perspiration  and  the  more  fluid  portions  of  the  oily  mat- 
ter.    In  order  that  the  air  may  accomplish  these  ends,   it  is 

363.  When  should  changes  in  dress  from  thick  to  thin  be  made  ?     Why  ? 
364.  What  is  said  of  the  necessity  of  bathing  ?     36-5.  What  temperature  of 
water  is   best  for   the   system  ?     366.  When   should  persons   not  bathe  ? 
When  is  the  best  time  for  bathing  ?     367.  What  method  is  the  simplest 
for  bathing  ?     How  are  colds  prevented  when  bathing  ?     368.  What  i 
of  the  influence  of  the  air  on  the  functions  of  the  sftin  ? 
11  * 


126  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

necessary  that  it  come  in  contact  with  the  body.  This  is  one 
of  the  many  reasons  why  we  should  wear  loose  and  porous 
clothing. 

369.  LIGHT  exercises  a  salutary  influence  upon  the  skin. 
Thus  we  see,  that  those  individuals  who  labor  in  low,  damp, 
dark  rooms,  are  pale  and  sickly.     The  light,  permeating  the 
skin,  not  only  exercises  a  salutary  influence  upon  this  mem- 
brane, but  upon  the  blood,  and,  through  this  fluid,  upon  the 
whole  system. 

370.  This  established  fact  shows  how  important  it  is  that 
school-houses,  mechanics'  shops,  kitchens,  and  sitting-rooms, 
be  not  only  well  ventilated,  but  favorably  situated  to  receive 
light.     For  the  same  reasons,  the  kitchen  and  the  sitting-room, 
which  are  the  apartments  most  used  by  ladies,  should  be  se- 
lected from  the  most  pleasant  and  well-lighted  rooms  in  the 
house. 

371.  When  any  portion  of  the  skin  has  been  frozen,  apply 
ice,  snow,  or  cold  water.     The  fire  and  a  warm  room  should 
be  avoided.     If  the  frozen    j,.>rts   blister,  treat  them  as   you 
would  burns. 

372.  In  scalds  and  burns,  when  the-re  is  no  blister,  or  if  one 
is  formed,  and  the  external  skin  :s  not  broken,  apply  cold  water, 
as  long  as  the  smarting  pain  continues.     After  the  pain  has 
subsided,  cover  the  blistered  part  with  a  patch  of  cotton  or  linen 
cloth,  on  which  is  spread  lard  and  bees-wax. 

373.  If  the   external    skin   is   removed,   apply   lime-water 
mixed  with  "  sweet  oil,"  fresh  cream,  or  lard  arid  bees- wax. 
When  the  dressings  are  applied,  they  should  not  be  removed 
until  they  become  dry  and  hard. 

369.  Show  the  effect  of  light  on  the  skin.  370.  What  is  said  of  the  se- 
lection of  those  rooms  that  are  the  most  used?  371.  What  should  be 
applied  when  the  skin  is  frozen  ?  What  should  be  avoided  ?  372.  In 
scalds  or  burns,  what  is  necessary  if  a  blister  is  formed  ?  373.  What  is 
necessary  if  the  external  skin  is  removed  ?  How  often  should  the  dres- 
sings be  removed  ? 


ANATOMY    OF   THE    NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  127 


CHAPTER    XXVII.  * 

THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

374.  IN  the  preceding  chapters,  the  structure  and  use  of  the 
bones  and  muscles  have  been  explained,  the  process  by  which 
the  food  is  converted  into  chyle  and  mixed  with  the  blood, 
together  with  the  manner  by  which  this  fluid  is  conveyed  to 
every  part  of  the  body,  has  been  described. 

375.  It  has  also  been  shown,  that  lymphatic  absorption  com- 
mences as  soon  as  nutrition  is  completed,  and  conveys  the 
useless,  worn-out  particles  of  the  different  parts  back  into  the 
circulating  fluid ;  while  the  respiratory  organs  and  secretory 
glands  perform  the  work  of  preparing  the  waste  atoms  to  be 
conveyed  from  the  body.     These  functions  must  succeed  each 
other  in  proper  order  ;  and  such  is  the  mutual  dependence  of 
these  processes,  that  a  medium  of  communication  is  necessary 
from  one  organ  to  another.     This  is  effected  by  means  of  the 
Nervous  System. 

ANATOMY  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

376.  The   NERVOUS   SYSTEM   is  composed   of  the   Brain, 
Cranial  Nerves,  Spinal  Cord,  Spinal  Nerves,  and  the  Sym- 
pathetic Nerve. 

377.  The  BRAIN  is  a  pulpy  organ  within  the  skull-bones. 
The  upper  and  front  portion   is  called  the  Cer'e-brum.     The 
lower  portion,  situated  at  the  back  part  of  the  skull,  is  called 
the  Cer-e-bel'lum. 

374.  What  has  been  described  in  the  preceding  chapters  ?  375.  WTiat 
has  also  been  shown  ?  376 — 388.  Give  the  anatomy  of  the  nervous  system. 
37fi.  Of  what  is  the  nervous  system  composed  ?  377.  Describe  the  brain. 


12* 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


378.  The  CEREBRUM,  or  larger  portion  of-  the  brain,  is  com- 
posed of  a  whitish  substance,  with  an  irregular  border  of  gray 
matter  around  its  edges. 

379.  The  CEREBELLUM  is  also  composed  of  white  and  gray 
matter,  but  the  latter  constitutes  the  largest  portion.   The  white 
matter  is  so  arranged,  that  when  cut  vertically,  the  appearance 
of  the  trunk  and  branches  of  a  tree  (ar'bor  vi'ta)  is  presented 

Fig.  69. 


Fig.  69.  a,  a,  The  scalp  turned  down,  fr,  ,fe,  b,  The  cut  edges  of  the  bones  of  the 
skull,  c,  The  external  membrane  of  the  brain  suspended  by  a  hook,  d,  The  left  side 
of  the  brain,  showing  its  convolutions. 

380.  The  brain  is  surrounded  by  three  membranes.  The 
external  membrane  is  thick  and  firm ;  the  middle  membrane  is 
thin,  and  looks  somewhat  like  a  spider's  web  ;  the  inner  mem- 
brane consists  of  a  net- work  of  blood-vessels. 


378.  Describe  the  cerebrum.     379.  Describe  the  cerebellum.     380.  What 
is  said  of  the  membranes  of  the  brain  ?     What  does  fig.  69  represent  t 


ANATOMY    OF    THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  1^9 

381.  On  removing  the  upper  part  of  the  skull-bones  and 
membranes,  the  brain  presents  an  undulating,  folded  appear 
ance.     These  ridges  are  called  con-vo-lu' lions. 

382.  The  SPINAL  CORD  is  composed  of  a  whitish  substance, 
similar  to  that  of  the  brain.     It  is  covered  with  a  sheath,  or 
membrane,  and    extends  from   the  brain    through    the   whole 
length  of  the  spinal  column.     Th§  upper  portion,  within  the 
skull-bones,  is  called  the  me-dul'la  ob-lon-gn'la. 

Fig.  70. 


Fig.  70.  A  section  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  showing  the  relation  of  the  crunial 
nerves  to  these  organs.  1,  The  cerebrum.  2,  The  cerebellum,  with  its  arbor  vita 
n.-pn-^rnted.  3,  The  medulla  oblongata.  4,  The  spinal  cord.  6,  The  first  pair,  or 
nerve  of  smell.  7,  The  second  pair,  or  nerve  of  sight.  9,  10,  12,  Tue  third,  fourth, 
and  <i.\th  pairs  of  norves.  These  pass  to  the  muscles  of  the  eye.  11,  The  fifth  pair 
or  nerve  of  taste,  and  also  the  sensitive  nerve  of  the  teeth.  13,  The  seventh  pair 
Thi.»  passes  to  the  muscles  of  the  face.  14,  The  eighth  pair,  or  nerve  of  hearing. 
15,  16,  18,  19,  The  ninth,  tenth,  eleventh  and  twelfth  pairs.  These  pass  to  the  tongue, 
larynx,  and  neck.  20,  Two  spinal  nerves. 

381.  "What  is  the  appearance  of  the  brain  when  the  skull-bones  and  mem 
branes  are  removed  ?  What  are  they  called  ?  382.  Describe  the  spinal 
rord  What  is  the  medulla  oblongata  ?  Explain  fig.  70. 


130 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


383.  The  NERVES  are  small,  white  cords,  that  pass  from  the 
brain  and  spinal  cord.     They  are  distributed  to  every  part  of 
the  human  system. 

384.  The  CRANIAL  nerves,  that  connect  with  the  base  of  the 
brain,  are  arranged  in  twelve  pairs.     They  are  generally  dis- 
tributed to  the  parts  about  the  face. 

385.  The  SPINAL  nerves*,  that  connect  with  the  spinal  cord, 
are  arranged  in  thirty-one  pairs,  each  arising  by  two  roots ;  an 
anterior,  or  motor  root ;  and  a  posterior,  or  sensitive  root. 

Fig.  71. 


Fig.  71.  A,  The  spinal  cord,  surrounded  by  its  sheath,  (E,  E.)  B,  A  spinal  nerve, 
formed  by  the  union  of  the  motor  root,  (C,)  and  the  sensitive  not,  (D.)  At  D,  the 
ganglion,  or  knot,  upon  this  root  is  seen. 

386.  Every  nerve,  however  small,  contains  two  distinct  cords 
of  nervous  matter.  One  gives  feeling,  while  the  other  is  used 
in  the  motion  of  the  part  to  which  they  are  distributed. 

387."  The  SYMPATHETIC  nerve  consists  of  a  series  of 
garigli.-a,  or  knots,  extending  each  side  of  the  spinal  column, 
forming  a  chain  its  whole  length.  It  communicates  with  both 
the  cranial  and  spinal  nerves,  and  likewise  distributes  branches 
to  all  the  internal  organs. 

383.  What  are  nerves  ?  384.  What  is  said  of  the  cranial  nerves  ? 
38o.  What  is  said  respecting  the  spinal  nerves  ?  386.  What  does  every 
nrrve  contain?  Describe  fig.  71.  387-  Describe  the  sympathetic  nervp 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM.  13J 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

PHYSIOLOGY    OP    THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

388.  THE  brain  is  the  organ  of  the  mind.     To.  the  cerebrum, 
or  large  brain,  the  faculties  of  thinking,  memory,  and  the  will, 
are  ascribed.     In  the  human  body,  this  part  of  the  brain  extends 
so  far  backward  as  to  cover  the  whole  of  the  cerebellum.     Tc 
the  cerebellum,  or  little  brain,  is  ascribed  the  seat  of  the  animal, 
or  lower  propensities. 

389.  The  brain  is  the  seat  of  sensation.     It  perceives  the 
impressions  made  on  all  parts  of  the  body,  through  the  medium 
of  the   sensitive   nerves.     That   the   impressions   of  external 
objects,  made  on  these  nerves,  be  communicated  to  the  brain, 
where  sensation  is  perceived,  it  is  necessary  that  they  be  not 
diseased  or  injured. 

390.  There  is  a  plain  distinction  between  sensations  and  im- 
pressions ;  the  latter  are  the  changes  produced  in  the  extremities 
of  the  nerve ;  the  former,  the  changes  produced  in  the  brain 
and  communicated  to  the  mind. 

391.  What  part  of  the  brain  receives  the  impressions,  or  has 
the  most  intimate  relation  with  the  intellectual  faculties,  is  un- 
known.    Some  portions,  however,  are  of  greater  importance 
than  others.     Pieces  of  both  the  white  and  gray  matter,  have 
been   removed  by    injuries  without  impairing  the  intellect  or 
destroying  life. 


388—394.  Give  the  functions  of  the  brain.  388.  "What  is  said  of  the  brain  ? 
What  is  ascribed  to  the  cerebrum  ?  To  the  cerebellum  ?  3S9.  Where  is 
sensation  perceived  ?  Through  what  medium  are  the  impressions  of  exter 
tial  objects  conveyed  to  the  brain  ?  390.  What  is  the  difference  between 
lensations  and  impressions  ?  391.  Is  it  known  what  part  of  the  brain  has 
the  most  intimate  relation  w  th  the  intellectual  faculties  ? 


132  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

392.  This  organ,  although  it  takes  cognizance  of  every  sen- 
sation, is,  of  itself,  but   slightly  sensible.     It  may  be  cut  or 
removed  without  pain,  and  the  individual,  at  the  same  time, 
retain  his  consciousness.     The  medulla  oblongata,  unlike  the 
brain,  is   highly  sensitive ;    if  slightly  punctured,  convulsions 
follow;  -if  much  injured,  respiration,  or  breathing,  immediately 
ceases. 

393.  The  brain  is  the  seat  of  the  will.     The  contraction,  or 
movement  of  the  muscles,  is  caused  by  an  influence  sent  from 
the  brain  by  the  act  of  the  mind,  or  the  will.     The  medium  of 
communication  from  this  organ  to  the  muscles,  is  the  motor 
nerves.     If  the  brain  is  in  a  state  of  repose,  the  muscles  are  at 
rest;  if,  by  an  act  of  the  will,  the  brain  sends  a  portion  of 
nervous  influence  to  a  muscle,  it  immediately  contracts,  and 
those  parts  to  which  the  muscle  is  attached,  move. 

394.  The  sympathetic   nerve,  although   it   confers  neither 
sensibility  nor  power  of  movement,  yet  it  gives  vitality,  or  life, 
to  all  the  important  parts  of  the  system.     Every  portion  of  the 
body  is,  to  a  certain  extent,  under  its  influence,  as  filaments 
from  this  system  of  nerves  accompany  the  blood-vessels  through- 
out their  course.     This  establishes  a  union,  or  sympathy,  with 
the  different  organs  of  the  body. 

Illustration.  When  the  brain  is  jarred  by  a  blow,  nausea 
and  vomiting  follow.  Again,  when  food  is  taken  that  irritates  the 
nerves  of  the  stomach,  it  produces  headache,  from  the  sympathy 
of  the  brain  with  the  stomach,  through  this  system  of  nerves. 

Fig.  72.  A  back  view  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord.  1,  The  cerebrum.  'J,  The 
cerebellum.  3,  The  spinal  cord.  4,  Nerves  of  the  face.  5,  The  brachial  plexus,  ot 
union  of  nerves.  6,  7,  8,  9,  Nerves  of  the  arm.  10,  Nerves  that  pass  under  the  ribs 
11,  The  lumbar  plexus  of  nerved.  12,  The  sacral  plexus  of  nerves.  13,  14,  15,  .(>, 
Nerves  of  the  lower  limbs. 


392.  What  is  said  of  the  sensibility  of  this  organ  ?  Of  the  medulb 
oblongata  ?  393.  Describe  how  the  contraction  of  a  muscle  is  effected. 
394.  "What  is  said  of  the  sympathetic  nerve  ?  Explain  fig.  72. 

Note.  Let  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of 'the  nervous  system  be  re 
viewed  from  fig.  72,  or  Hiiatomical  outline  plate  8. 


ANATOMY    OF    THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 


IT? 


Fig.   72. 


134  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE 

CHAPTER     XXIX. 

HYGIENE    OF    THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

395.  As  the  different  organs  of  the  system  are  dependent  on 
the  brain  and  spinal  cord  for  efficient  functional  action,  and  as 
the  mind  and  brain  are  closely  connected  during  life,  the  former 
acting  in  strict  obedience  to  the  laws  which  regulate  the  latter, 
it  becomes  an  object  of  great  importance  in  education  to  dis- 
cover what  these  laws  are,  and  escape  the  numerous  evils  con- 
sequent on  their  violation. 

396.  For  healthy  and  efficient  action,  the  brain  should  be, 
primarily,  sound ;  as  this  organ  is  subject  to  the  same  general 
laws  as  other  parts  of  the  body.     If  the  brain  of  the  child  is 
free  from  defects  at  birth,  and  acquires  no  improper  impressions 
in  infancy,  it  will  not  easily  become  diseased  in  after  life. 

397.  The  brain  requires  a  due  supply  of  pure  blood.     It  is 
estimated  that  one  tenth  of  all   the  blood  sent  from  the  heart 
goes  to  this  organ.     If  the  arterial  blood  be  altogether  with- 
drawn, or  a  person  breathes  air  that  is  filled  with  carbonic  gas, 
the  brain  ceases  its  proper  action,  and   sensibility  with  con- 
sciousness become  extinct.     The  effects  of  slight  differences  in 
the  quality  of  the  blood  upon  the  action  of  the  brain,  are  not  so 
easily  recognized. 

Illustration.  Let  a  person  remain,  for  a  time,  in  a  crowded, 
ill-ventilated  hall  or  church,  and  headache  or  faintness  is  gen- 
erally produced.  This  is  caused  by  the  action  of  impure  blood 
upon  the  brain. 

395 — 408.  Give  the  hygiene  of  the  nervous  system.  395.  Why  is  it  im- 
portant to  know  the  laws  which  regulate  the  action  o  f  the  brain  ?  396.  What 
is  necessary  that  the  action  of  the  brain  be  healthy  a  id  efficient  ?  397.  Why 
does  the  brain  require  a  due  supply  of  pure  blood  ?  How  is  this  ill  us 
trated  ? 


HYGIENE    OF    THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  135 

Observation.  If  a  school-teacher  wishes  to  have  his  pupils, 
on  the  day  of  examination,  appear  creditably,  he  will  be  care- 
ful to  have  the  room  well  ventilated.  Ventilating  churches 
might  prevent  the  inattention  and  sleepiness  that  are  observed 
during  the  afternoon  service. 

398.  The  brain  should  be  called  into  action.     This  organ, 
like  the  muscles,  should  be  used,  and  then  allowed  to  rest,  or 
cease  from  vigorous   thought.     When  the  brain   is   properly 
called  into  action  by  moderate  study,  it  increases  in  size  and 
strength  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  it  is  not  used,  the  action 
of  this  organ  is  enfeebled,  thereby  diminishing  the  function  of 
all  parts  of  the  body. 

399.  The  number  of  hours  that  the  brain  should  be  vigor- 
ously  used,   depends   on   its   development,   and    the    general 
health  of  the  body.     The  child  with  a  large  brain  and  an  active 
mind,  should   not   be    induced    to   pursue   studies    above    the 
capacity  of  children  generally.     On  the  other  hand,  children 
of  sluggish  minds,  particularly  if  they  have  good  health,  should 
be  incited  to  study. 

400.  Excessive  and  continued  mental  exertion  is  injurious 
at  any  time  of  life ;  but  in   infancy  and  early  youth,  when  the 
structure  of  the  brain  is  still  immature  and  delicate,  permanent 
injury  is  more  easily  produced  by  incorrect  treatment  than  at 
any  subsequent  period. 

Observation.  It  is  no  unusual  occurrence,  that  on  "  exam- 
ination day,"  the  best  scholars  appear  indifferently.  This  is 
the  result  of  nervous  exhaustion,  produced  by  extra  mental 
effort  in  preparing  for  the  final  examination.  Such  pupils 
should  divert  their  minds  from  study,  for  a  few  days  previous 
to  examination.  During  this  time,  indulge  in  light  reading  and 
physical  recreation. 

Give  a  practical  observation.  398.  Why  should  the  brain  be  called  into 
action  ?  What  is  the  effect  if  the  brain  is  not  used  ?  399.  How  long  should 
the  brain  be  actively  used  ?  What  is  said  respecting  the  child  with  a  large 
brain  ?  Those  of  sluggish  minds  ?  400.  WTien  is  excessive  and  continued 
mental  exertion  particularly  injurious  ?  Give  observation. 


136  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

401.  We  should  not  enter  upon  continued  mental  exertion, 
or  arouse  deep  feeling,  immediately  after  a  full  meal.     Such 
is  the  connection  between  the  mind  and  body,  that  even  in  a 
perfectly  healthy  person,  unwelcome  news,  sudden  anxiety,  or 
mental  excitement,  occurring  soon  after  eating,  will   impede 
digestion,  and  cause  the  stomach  to  loathe  the  masticated  food. 

402.  We  should  engage  in  intense  study  in  the  early  part 
of  the  day.     Studies  that  require  close  application  should  be 
pursued   in  the  morning.     The  evening  should   be  devoted  10 
entertaining  conversation,  music,  and  light  reading.     This  will 
fit  the  system  of  the  student  for  quiet  and  refreshing  sleep. 

Observation.  The  idea  of  gathering  wisdom  by  burning  the 
"  midnight  oil  "  is  more  poetical  than  profitable.  The  best  time 
to  use  the  brain  is  during  the  day. 

403.  Those  whose  employment  is  arduous,  and  the  grousing 
child,  need  more  sleep  than  the  idler  or  the  adult.     As  sleep  is 
the  natural  repose  of  all  organs,  it-  follows  that  the  more  all  the 
organs  of  the  system  are  employed,   the  more    repose    they 
require.    The  organs  of  the  child,  beside  sustaining  their  proper 
functions,  are  busy  in   promoting  its   growth.     This  nutritive 
process  is  attended  with  a  certain  degree  of  exhaustion. 

404.  The   condition  of  the  brain  is  modified  by  changing 
(he  action  of  the  mind.     If  we  think  intensely  of  a  subject, 
the   face  will    become   flushed,  and   dizziness  or  pain  of  the 
head  will    be   induced.      Change    our   thoughts  to    something 
of  a   more    trifling   character,  and    these    peculiar    sensations 
will  cease. 

405.  The  brain  can  exercise  its  full  power  upon  only  one 
object  at  a  time.     If  its  energies  are  directed  to  two  or  more 
operations,  neither  will  receive  that  full   power  of  exertion  that 
it  would,  if  only  one  object  had  engaged  the  mind. 

401.  Why  should  we  not  arouse  deep  feeling  immediately  after  a  full 
meal  ?  402.  When  should  we  engage  in  intense  study?  Gi-  e  observation. 
403.  What  persons  require  the  most  sleep  ?  404.  Show  how  the  action  of 
the  mind  modifies  the  condition  of  the  brain.  405.  Why  cannot  the  brain 
exercise  its  full  powers  on  more  than  one  object  at  a  time  ? 


HYGIENE    OF    THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM.  13"? 

406.  Regularity  is  of  great  importance  in  calling  the  brain 
into  action.     Let  us  take  our  dinner  at  a  certain  hour  for  sev- 
eral successive  \veeks>  and  we  at  last  find  our  appetites  indi- 
cating its  approach  with  the  greatest  regularity.     The  same  is 
true  of  the  nervous  system  ;  call  it  into  action  at  regular  periods, 
and  without  previous  thought,  we  enter  upon  that  mode  of 
action  when  the  time  approaches.     The  formation  of  "  habits  " 
are  promoted  by  this  principle. 

407.  Repetition  is  necessary  to  make  a  durable  impression 
on  the  mind.     Repetition  of  mental  action  is  as  important  as 
repetition  of  muscular  action.     It  is  by  this  means  that  thoughts 
are  durably  impressed  upon  the  brain.     This  principle  has  been 
too  much  neglected  in  the  moral  and  intellectual  education  of 
children. 

408.  In  injuries  of  the  brain,  the  person  is  generally  insen- 
sible, the  extremities  are  pale  and  cold,  the  pulse  feeble,  and 
the  breathing  is  less  frequent  and  full.     When  these  symptoms 
exist,  the  patient  should  be  placed  in  pure  air.     Friction,  with 
dry  warmth,  should   be  applied   to  the  extremities,  to  restore 
proper  circulation  in  the  blood-vessels.     There  should  be  no 
bleeding  until  the  skin  of  the  extremities  becomes  warm. 

406.  Should  the  brain  be  called  into  action  at  regular  periods  ?  407.  Why 
is  repetition  of  mental  action  necessary  ?  408.  What  is  the  effect  on  the 
system  when  the  brain  is  injured  ?  What  is  necessary  to  be  done  when 
su-:h  symptoms  exist? 


138  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY,   AND    HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER    XXX. 

SENSE    OF    TOUCH. 

409.  SENSATION   is   an   impression   made   upon   the   mind 
through  the  medium   of  the  senses.     There  are  five  senses, 
namely,   Touch,   Taste,  Smell,  Hearing,  and   Vision. 

410.  TOUCH  is  the  sense  that  enables  us  to  tell  whether  a 
body  is  rough  or  smooth,  cold  or  hot,  sharp  or  blunt.     This 
sense  and  feeling  reside  in  the  nerves  of  the  skin. 

411.  The  nerves  that  contribute  to  the  sense  of  touch,  pro- 
ceed from  the  anterior  half  of  the  spinal  cord.     Where  sensa- 
tion is  most  acute,  we  find  the  greatest  number  of  nervous 
filaments,  and  those  of  the  largest  size,  as  at  the  ends  of  the 
fingers  and  lips. 

Observation.  The  sense  of  touch  varies  in  different  persons, 
and  also  in  individuals  of  different  ages.  Thus  the  sensibilities 
of  the  child  are  more  acute  than  those  of  the  adult. 

412.  This  sense  is  modified  by  the  condition  of  the  brain 
and  nerves ;  by  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  blood  supplied 
to  the  skin ;  by  the  thickness  of  the  cuticle ;  and  by  cultivation. 

Observation.  Blind  persons,  by  whom  the  beauties  of  the 
external  world  cannot  be  seen,  cultivate  this  sense  to  such  a 
degree  that  they  can  distinguish  objects  with  great  accuracy ; 
and  the  rapidity  with  which  they  read  books  prepared  for  their 
use,  is  a  convincing  proof  of  the  niceness  and  extent  to  which 
the  cultivation  of  this  sense  can  be  carried. 

409.  Through  what  medium  are  sensations  received  ?  Name  the  senses. 
410- -412.  What  is  said  of  the  sense  of  touch?  410.  What  is  touch? 
411.  Why  is  sensation  acute  at  the  ends  of  the  fingers  and  lips:  What 
is  said  respecting  the  sense  of  touch  in  different  persons  ?  412.  What 
modify  this  sense  ?  What  is  said  of  blind  persons  ? 


SENSE    OF   TASTE.  139 


SENSE    OF    TASTE. 

413.  TASTE  is  the  sense  by  which  we  perceive  the  flavor  or 
relish  of  a  thing.     The  tongue  is  the  principal  organ  of  taste, 
though  the  sides  of  ihe  cheeks,  and  upper  part  of  the  throat 
share  in  this  function. 

414.  The   surface  of  the   tongue   is   thickly  studded   with 
papillae,  or  points ;  these  give  this  organ  a  velvety  appearance. 
T  j  these  points  the  gust'a-to-ry,  or  nerve  of  taste,  is  distributed. 

Fig.  73. 


Fig.  73.  The  distribution  of  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves.  1,  The  orbii  for  the  eye 
2,  The  upper  jaw.  3,  The  tongue.  4,  The  lower  jaw.  5,  The  fifth  pair  of  nervea. 
6,  The  first  branch  of  this  nerve,  that  passes  to  the  eye.  9,  10,  11,  12,  13,  14,  Divis- 
ions of  this  branch.  7,  The  second  branch  that  passes  to  the  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw. 
15,  Ifi,  17,  18,  19,  20,  Divisions  of  this  branch.  8,  The  third  branch  that  is  distributed 
to  the  tongue  and  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw.  23,  Tne  division  of  this  branch,  called 
gustatory.  24,  The  division  that  is  distributed  to  the  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw. 

413 — 419.  What  is  said  respecting  ike  sense  of  taste  t  413.  Define  taste. 
What  is  the  principal  organ  of  taste  ?  414.  Where  is  the  nerve  of  taste 
distributed  ?  Explain  fig.  73. 


140  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,   AND   HYGIENE. 

Observation.  By  applying  strong  acids,  as  vinegar,  to  the 
tongue,  with  a  hair-pencil,  these  points  will  become  curiously 
lengthened. 

415.  Substances,  to  be  tasted,  must  be  either  naturally  fluid, 
or  partially  dissolved  by  the  saliva.     When  fluids  are  taken  into 
the  mouth,  the    papillae  dilate  and  erect  themselves,  and  tho 
particular  sensation  excited  is  carried  to  the  brain  by  the  nerve 
of  taste.     But  if  dry,  solid  food  is  token,  it  must  be  acted  upon 
by  the  saliva  before  the  impression  is  perceived. 

416.  The  use  of  taste  is  to  guide  men  and  animals  in  the  se- 
lection of  their  food,  and  to  warn  them  against  the  introduction 
of  injurious  articles  into  the  stomach.     This  sense  has  been  made 
to  vary  more  than  any  other  by  the  refinements  of  social  life. 

417.  The  Indian's  like  or  dislike  to  particular  kinds  of  food, 
generally  extends  to  every  person  of  the  same  tribe  ;  but  among 
civilized  men,  no  two  individuals  can  be  found  alike  in  all  their 
tastes. 

418.  This  sense  is  modified  by  habit,  and  not  unfrequently 
those  articles  which  at   first  were  disgusting,  become  highly 
agreeable,  by  persevering  in  the  use  of  them  ;  as  in  learning  to 
chew  tobacco,  &c. 

419.  Taste,  as  well  as  touch,  may  be  improved  in  acuteness. 
Those  persons  whose  business  leads  them  to  judge  of  the  quality 
of  an  article  by  their  taste,  can  discriminate  shades  of  flavor 
not  perceivable  by  ordinary  persons.     Epicures,  and  tasters  of 
wines  and  teas,  afford  examples. 

Observation.  Many  persons  impair  their  taste  by  bad  habits, 
as  chewing  or  smoking  tobacco,  and  using  stimulating  drinks, 
&c.  These  indulgences  lessen  the  sensibility  of  the  nerve,  and 
destroy  the  natural  relish  for  food. 


How  can  these  points  upon  the  tongue  be  seen  ?  415.  How  must  sub- 
stances be,  in  order  to  be  tasted  ?  Show  how  the  taste  of  substances  is 
perceived  by  the  brain.  416.  What  is  the  use  of  taste  ?  What  is  said  of 
the  difference  among  persons  as  regards  taste  ?  418.  What  effect  has  habit 
on  this  sense  ?  419.  What  effect  has  cultivation  ?  Give  illustrative  ex- 
amples. How  may  the  taste  be  impaired  ? 


SENSE    OF    SMELL.  J41 


SENSE    OF    SMELL. 

420.  SMELL  is  the  sense  that  enables  us  to  discern  the  odor, 
01  scent,  of  a  thing.     This  sense  is  located  in  the  air  passages 
of  the  nose. 

421.  The   air   passages,  or  nostrils,  are   lined   by  mucous 
membrane,  which  is  continuous  wkh  the  skin  externally,  and 
with  the  lining  membrane  of  other  cavities  which  communicate 
with  them.     To  this  membrane  the  ol-fact'o-ry,  or  nerve  of 
smell,  is  distributed. 

422.  To  protect  the  delicate  filaments  of  the  nerve  of  smell, 
thus  freely  exposed  to  the  air  and  to  the  painful  stimulus  of 
sharp,  pungent  odors,  the  membrane  is  kept  constantly  mos. 
bv  a  fluid  secreted  by  the  glands,  with  which  it  is  provided. 

Fig.  74. 


)  74.  A  side  view  of  the  passages  of  the  nostrils,  and  the  distribution  of  the  firs; 
p;iii  <f  nerves.  4,  The  olfactory  nerve.  5,  The  fine  and  curious  divisions  of  this 
nerv»  on  the  membnne  of  the  nose. 

423.  When  substances  are  presented  to  the  nose,  the  air 
that  is  passing  through  the  nostrils  brings  the  odoriferous  parti- 

420 — 427.  What  is  said  in  reference  to  smell?  420.  "WTiut  is  smell  ?  "\Vhere 
is  this  sense  located  ?  421.  Describe  the  air  passages  of  the  nose.  422.  How 
are  the  filaments  of  the  nerve  of  smell  protected  from  pungent  odors  ? 
What  does  fig.  74  represent  ?  423.  How  is  the  odor  of  substances  carried 
tr>  the  brain  ? 


142  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,   AND    HYGIENE. 

cles  of  matter  in  contact  with  the  filaments  of  the  nerve  of 
smell,  that  are  spread  upon  the  membrane  that  lines  the  air 
passages,  and  the  impression  is  then  carried  to  the  brain. 

424.  This  sense  is  closely  connected  with  that  of  taste,  and 
aids  man,  as  well  as  the  inferior  animals,  in  selecting  proper 
food.     It  also  gives  us  pleasure  by  the  inhalation  of  agreeable 
odors. 

425.  The  sense  of  smell,  like  taste  and  touch,  may  be  im- 
proved by  cultivation.     Thus  the  North  American  Indians  can 
easily  distinguish  different  tribes,  and  different  persons  of  the 
same  tribe,  by  the  odor  of  their  bodies. 

426.  This  sense  is  seen  to  be  remarkably  acute  in  the  dog ; 
he  will   trace  his  master's  footsteps  through   thickly-crowded 
streets,  and  distinguish  them  from  thousands  of  others ;  he  will 
track  the  hare  over  the  ground  for  miles,  guided  only  by  the 
odor  that  it  leaves  in  its  flight. 

427.  Acuteness  of  smell  requires  that  the  brain  and  nerve 
of  smell  be  healthy,  and  that  the  membrane  that  lines  the  nose 
be  thin  and  moist.     Any  influence  that  diminishes  the  sensibility 
of  the  nervous  filaments,  thickens  the  membrane,  or  renders  it 
dry,  impairs  this  sense. 

Observation.  Snuff,  when  introduced  into  the  nose,  not  only 
diminishes  the  sensibility  of  the  nerve,  but  thickens  the  lining 
membrane.  This  thickening  of  the  membrane  obstructs  the 
passage  of  air  through  the  nostrils,  and  thus  obliges  "  snuff- 
takers"  to  open  their  mouths  when  they  breathe. 

424.  What  is  the  use  of  this  sense  ?  425.  What  is  said  of  this  sense 
among  the  North  American  Indians  ?  426.  In  the  dog  ?  427.  What  does 
acuteness  of  smell  require?  What  will  impair  this  sense?  What  effect 
has  snuff  upon  the  nasal  organ  ? 


SENSE    OF    VISION.  ^  H«AJJ  113 

CHAPTER    XXXI. 

SENSE    OF    VISION. 

428.  THIS  sense  contributes  more  to  the  enjoyment  and  hap^ 
piness  of  man  than  any  of  the  other  senses.     By  it,  we  per- 
ceive the  form,  color,  size,  and  position  of  objects  that  surround 
us.     The  beautiful  organ  of  vision,  or  sight,  is  the  Eye. 

ANATOMY  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  VISION. 

429.  The  EYE  is  shaped  like  a  globe,  and  is  placed  in  a 
cavity  in  front  of  the  skull.     The  sides  of  the  globes  are  com- 
posed of  three  coats,  or  membranes.     The  interior  of  the  globe 
is  filled  with  certain  substances  called  Hu'mors. 

430.  The  COATS  are  three  in  number :    1st.    The  Scle-rot'ic 
and  Corn'e-a,   2d.  The  Cho'roid,  I'ris,  and  Oil 'ia-ry  processes. 
3d.   The  Ret'i-na. 

431.  The   HUMORS   are  also   three   in   number:     1st.   The 
A'que-ous,   or   watery.       2d.    The    Crys'tal-line.       3d.    The 
Vit're-ous,  or  glassy. 

432.  The  SCLEROTIC  coat  is  firm,  and  its  color  white ;  hence, 
it  is  frequently  called  the  "  white  of  the  eye."    From  its  tough- 
ness, it  forms  the  principal  support  to  this  organ.     This  mem- 
brane, with  the  cornea  in  front,  encloses  the  eye. 

433.  The  CORNEA  is  the  transparent  part  of  the  eye  in  front, 
which  projects  more  than  the  rest  of  the  globe.     It  is  shaped 
like  the  crystal  of  a  watch,  and,  in  health,  gives  the  eye  its 
sparkling  brilliancy. 

428-449.  Give  the  structure  of  the  different  parts  of  the  eye.  J29.  De- 
scribe the  eye.  430.  Name  the  coats  of  the  eye.  431.  Name  the  humors 
of  the  eye.  432.  Describe  the  sclerotic  coat.  433.  Where  is  the  cornea 
situated  ? 


144  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,   AND   HYGIENE. 

434.  The  CHOROID  coat  is  of  a  dark  color  upon  its  inner 
surface.     It  contains  a  great  number  of  blood-vessels,  which 
give  nourishment  to  different  parts  of  the  eye. 

435.  The  IRIS  is  situated  a  short  distance  behind  the  cornea. 
It  is  the  most  delicate  of  all  the  muscles  of  the  body.     This 
part  gives  the  blue,  gray,  or  black  color  to  the  eye. 

436.  In  the  centre  of  the  iris  is  an  opening  called  the  pu'pil* 
which  enlarges  or  contracts,  according  to  the  quantity  of  light 
thai  falls  upon  the  eye. 

Fig.  75. 


A  section  of  the  eye,  seen  from  within.  1,  The  divided  edge  of  the  three 
coats.  2,  The  pupil.  3,  The  nis.  4,  The  ciliary  processes  5,  The  scolloped  border 
of  the  retina. 

437.  On  v'ewing  the  part  of  the  eye  near  the  pupil,  small 
lines,  of  a  .ighter  color,  will  be  seen  passing  to  the  outer  part  of 
the  iris ;  these  are  called  ciliary  processes.      They  are  about 
sixty  in  number. 

438.  The  RETINA  is  the  innermost  coat  of  the  eye.     It  is 


*  From  pu'pa,  Latin,  a  babe ;  because  it  reflects  the  diminished 
image  of  the  person  who  looks  upon  it. 

434.  Describe  the  choroid  coat.  4C5.  Where  is  the  iris  situated  ?  What 
is  said  of  this  coat  ?  436.  Where  is  the  pupil  of  the  eye  ?  Explain  ng. 
75.  437.  Describe  the  ciliary  processes.  438.  Gi^e  the  structure  of  the  in 
n^rmost  coat  of  the  eve. 


SENSE    OF    VISION.  145 

formed,  in  part,  by  an  expansion  of  the  optic  nerve  over  the 
bottom  of  the  eye,  where  the  sense  of  vision  is  first  received. 

439.  The  AQUEOUS  humor  occupies  the  space  between  the 
cornea  and  crystalline  humor,  both  before  and  behind  the  iris. 

440.  The  CRYSTALLINE  humor  (lens)  lies  behind  the  aque- 
ous humor  and  pupil.     Its  form  is  different  on  the  two  sides. 
When  boiled,  it  may  be  separated  into  layers  like  those  of  an 
onion. 

Observations.  1st.  The  lens  in  the  eye  of  a  fish  is  round, 
like  a  globe,  and  when  boiled,  it  may  be  separated  into  layers, 
resembling  those  of  the  human  eye. 

Fig.  76. 


Fig.  70.  A  section  of  the  globe  of  the  eye.  1,  The  sclerotic  coat.  2,  The  cornea. 
This  connects  with  the  sclerotic  coat  by  a  bevelled  edge.  3,  The  choroid  coat.  6, 6,-  The 
iris.  7,  The  pupil.  8,  The  retina.  10,  11,  11,  Chambers,  or  cavities  of  the  eye  that 
contain  the  aqueous  humor.  12,  The  crystalline  lens.  13,  The  vitreous  humo- 
i5,  The  optic  nerve.  14,  16,  One  of  the  arteries  of  the  eye. 

2d.  When  the  crystalline  lens,  or  the  membrane  which  sur- 
rounds it,  is  changed  in  structure,  so  as  to  prevent  the  rays  of 
light  passing  to  the  retina,  the  affection  is  called  a  cataract. 

441.    The  VITREOUS  humor  is  situated  in  the  back  part  of 

439.  Where  is  the  aqueous  humor  found  ?    440.  The  crystalline  humor  ? 
How  can  the  structure  of  this  lens  be  seen  ?    Explain  fig.  76.     441.  Whc  n 
is  the  vitreous  humor  situated  ? 
13 


f 
146  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

(he  eye.  It  occupies  more  tnan  two  thirds  of  the  whole  inte' 
nor  of  the  globe  of  the  eye. 

Observation.  The  structure  of  this  organ  can  be  seen,  by 
arst  freezing  the  eye  of  a  sheep,  or  an  ox ;  it  then  can  be  cut 
in  various  directions,  and  each  part  separately  examined. 

442.  The  OPTIC  NERVE,  or  nerve  of  vision,  extends  from 
the  brain  to  the  back  part  of  the  eye,  where  it  expands  on  a 
portion  of  the  choroid  coat.  On  this  expansion  the  image  of 
objects  are  first  formed. 


K-  77. 


Fig.  77.  The  second  pair  of  nerves.  1,  1,  The  globe  of  the  eye.  The  one  on  the 
left  is  perfect,  but  the  sclerotic  coat  has  been  removed  from  the  one  on  the  right,  to 
ehow  the  retina.  2,  The  crossing  of  the  optic  nerve.  3,  4,  The  brain.  5,  6,  The 
commencement  of  the  spinal  cord.  7, 8,  9, 10,  11,  12,  13,  The  cranial  nerves. 

443.  The  EYEBROWS  and  EYELIDS  protect  the  eye  from  too 
strong  impressions  of  light,  and  also  prevent  particles  of  dust 
and  perspiration  from  falling  into  it. 

How  can  the  structure  of  the  eye  be  seen  ?    442.  What  is  said  of  the 
,  tic  nerve  ?     "What  is  represented  by  fig.  77  ?     443.  What  is  the  use  of  the 
eyebrows  and  eyelids  ? 


SENSE    OF   VISION.  147 

444.  The  EYELASHES  are  attached  to  the  eyelids ;  and  when 
the  eye  is  closed,  they  interlace,  and  thus  prevent  particles  of 
matter   from   injuring   this   delicate   organ.     They   add   very 
greatly  to  the  expression  of  the  eye. 

445.  The  eyelids  not  only  protect  the  eye,  by  closing  it  in 
front,  from  too  brilliant  rays  of  light  and  from  dust,  but  dis- 
tribute equally  over  the  globe  of  the  eye  a  watery  fluid  secreted 
by  glands,  with  which  they  are  provided. 

446.  Beside  this,  there  is  another  fluid,  (tears,)  secreted  by 
the  lach'ry-mal,  or  tear-gland,  above  the  eye.    The  tears  flow  to 
the  eye  by  several  minute  ducts.     As  this  fluid  passes  over  the 
eye,  the  small  atoms  of  dust  are  swept  away,  by  the  process 
of  "winking,"  and  with  the  tears  pass  into  two  ducts  at  the 
inner  corner  of  both  eyelids. 

Fig.  78. 


Fig.  78.  1,  The  tear-gland.  2,  The  ducts  that  pass  from  this  gland  to  the  eye 
j,  3,  Duct:-  it  the  inner  corner  of  the  eyelids.  4,  The  duct  that  opens  into  the  nose. 

.447.  These  small  ducts  usually  convey  the  tears  away  as  quick- 
ly as  they  are  formed  ;  but  when  the  eye  is  irritated,  or  the  mind 

444.  What  is  the  use  of  the  eyelashes  ?  445.  Give  another  use  of  these 
protecting  parts  of  tho  eye.  446.  Where  are  tears  formed  ?  What  is  tho 
use  of  tears  ?  What  does  fig.  78  represent  ?  447.  What  is  the  effect  whrn 
thi  eye  is  irritated  ? 


148 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,   AND    HYGIENE. 


aflected  by  various  emotions,  they  flow  to  the  eye  too  rapidly  to 
be  conveyed  to  the  nose,  and  they* then  course  down  the  cheek. 

448.  The  ORBIT,  or  bony  cavity,  in  which  the  globe  of  the 
eye  is  placed,  is  lined  with  a  thick  cushion  of  fat,  in  order  that 
the  eye  may  move  in  all  directions,  with  perfect  freedom  and 
without  friction. 

449.  The  eye  is  moved  by  six  muscles,  one  extremity  of 
which  is  attached  to  the  bones  of  the  orbit ;  the  other  extrem 
itv  to  the  globe  of  the  eye. 

Fig.  79. 


Fig.  79.     A  view  of  the  eye  and  its  muscles,     a,  i,  c,  d,  e,  Five  of  these  muscles. 
/,  The  optic  nerve.    The  bone  is  seen  above  and  below  the  eye 

Observation.  If  the  external  muscle  is  too  short,  the  eye  is 
turned  out,  producing  the  ''wall  eye."  If  the  internal  muscle 
is  contracted,  the  eye  is  turned  inward  toward  the  nose.  It  is 
then  called  a  "  cross  eye." 

448.  How  are  the  movements  of  the  eye  facilitated  ?  449.  How  manj 
muscles  move  the  eye  ?  What  is  the  effect  if  the  external  muscle  is  con 
railed  ?  The  internal  muscle  ? 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE    OBGANS    OF    VISION. 


149 


CHAPTER    XXXII. 


PHYSIOLOGY    OF   THE    ORGANS    OF   VISION. 

450.  As  the  eye  is  strictly  an  optical  instrument,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  know  the  laws  that  regulate  the  transmission  of  light, 
before   the  use  of  the  different   parts   of  this   organ  can   be 
understood. 

451.  It  is  a  law  of  optics,  that  the  rays  of  light,  while  passing 
through  the  same  medium,  proceed  in  straight  lines ;  but  that 
they  are  turned  out  of  their  course  when  they  pass  from  one 
medium  to  another  of  different  density.     They  are  then  said  to 
be  refracted. 

Fig.  80. 


Fig.  80.  The  course  of  the  rays  of  light  coming  from  an  object  and  passing  through 
Ihe  eye.  A,  A  pen,  an  inverted  image  of  which  is  painted^on  the  retina  uf  the  eye, 
at  B. 

452.  Another  law  is,  that  the  rays  of  light,  as  they  become 
more  distant  from  the  luminous  body,  diverge,  or  extend  farther 
from  each  other.  We  would  also  add,  that  the  rays  of  light 
from  an  object,  in  passing  through  the  eye,  cross  each  other. 
Hence,  the  image  of  the  object  is  inverted  on  the  retina. 

450—454.     Give  the  physiology  of  the  organs  of  vision.    450.  What  i.<? 

necessary  before  the  use  of  the  different  parts  of  the  eye  can  be  understood  ''. 

451.  Give  the  first  law  in  reference  to  light.     What  is  represented  by  fig.  80  : 

152.  The  second  law.    Why  is  the  image  of  objects  inverted  on  the  ret'na  f 

13* 


150  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

453.  We  will  now  pass  to  the  use  of  the  different  parts  of 
the   eye.     The   eyebrows,   eyelids,  and   eyelashes,   are    pro- 
tecting organs  to  this  delicate  instrument ;  while  the  coats  give 
form  and  protection  to  the  more  delicate  parts  within. 

454.  The  transparent  cornea  and  humors  are  mediums  of 
different  density ;  so  that  the  direction  o"f  the  rays  of  light  that 
leave  the  object  at  which  we  look,  are  refracted  and  form  upon 
the    retina  a  small,  but  clear  image  of  that  object.     The  im- 
pression of  the  image  upon  the  retina,  is  then  carried  to  the 
brain  by  the  optic  nerve. 

Observations.  1st.  When  the  cornea  and  crystalline  lens 
become  flattened,  as  in  old  age,  the  image  is  formed  beyond 
the  retina.  This  defect  is  remedied  by  wearing  convex  glasses. 

2d.  When  the  cornea  and  crystalline  lens  are  too  convex, 
an  image  of  the  object  will  be  formed  before  the  retina.  This 
defect  of  the  eye  is  called  wear-sighted  ness.  To  give  such 
persons  longer  vision,  it  is  necessary  to  wear  concave  glasses. 


HYGIENE  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  VISION. 

455.  The  eye,  like  other  organs  of  the  body,  should  be  used, 
and  then  rested.     If  we  look  intently  at  an  object  for  a  long 
time,  the  eye  becomes  wearied,  and  the  power  of  vision  dimin- 
ished.    On  the  contrary,  if  the  eye  is  not  called  into  action,  its 
functions  are 'enfeebled. 

456.  Sudden  transitions  of  light  should  be  avoided.     The 
iris  enlarges  or  contracts,  as  the  light  that  falls  upon  the  eye  is 
faint  or  strong;  but  the  change  is  not  instantaneous.     Hence  the 

453.  What  parts  of  the  eye  are  used  to  protect  this  delicate  organ  ? 
To  give  it  form  ?  454.  What  is  said  of  the  use  of  the  cornea  and  humors  ? 
When  do  persons  need  convex  glasses  ?  When  concave  ?  455 — 461.  Give 
the  hygiene  of  the  orgam  of  vision.  455.  How  should  the  eyp  be  used  ? 
What  is  the  effect  of  using  the  eye  too  long  ?  Of  not  calling  it  into  action  ? 
456.  What  should  be  avoided  in  using  the  eye  ? 

Note.  Review  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  eye  from  fig.  76. 
or  from  anatomical  outline  plate  10. 


HYGIENE    OF    THE    ORGANS    OF   VISION.  151 

jmperfect  vision  in  passing  from  a  strong  to  a  dim  light,  and  the 
overwhelming  sensation  experienced  on  going  from  a  dimly 
lighted  room  to  one  brilliantly  lighted. 

457.  As  far  as  possible,  avoid  all  oblique  positions  of  the 
eye,  when  viewing  objects.     If  the  eye  is  turned  obliquely  in 
viewing  objects,  it  may  produce  an  unnatural  contraction  of  the 
muscle  called  into  action.     This  contraction  of  the  muscle  is 
called  strabismus,  or  cross-eye. 

458.  Children  sJwuld  be  trained  to  use  the  eye  upon  objects 
at  different  distances.     This  is  necessary,  in  order   that  the 
vision  may  be  correct  when  objects  at  various  distances  are 
viewed,  as  the  eye  accommodates  itself  to  receive  impressions 
from  objects  remote  as  well  as  near. 

459.  When  particles  of  dust  get  upon  the  eye,  the  individual 
should  be  placed  before  a  strong  light,  the  lids  held  open,  and 
the  particles  removed  with  the  corner  of  a  fine  linen  or  silk 
handkerchief.     Sometimes   the  substance   is   concealed  under 
the  upper  eyelid,  and  it  may  be  then  exposed  by  turning  back 
the  lid  in  the  following  manner. 

460.  Take  a  knitting-needle,  or  small,  slender  piece  of  stick, 
which  is  perfectly  smooth,  and  place  it  over  the  upper  lid,  in 
contact  with  and  just  under  the  edge  of  the  orbit ;  then,  holding 
it  firmly,  seize  the  lashes  with  the  fingers  of  the  disengaged 
hand,  and  gently  turn  the  lid  back  over  the  stick. 

461.  Too  many  trials  ought  not  to  be  made,  if  unsuccessful, 
as  much  inflammation  may  be  induced ;  but  a  surgeon  ought 
to  be  consulted  as  soon  as  possible.     Eye-stones  ought  never 
to  be  placed    in   the  eye,  as  they  often  cause  more  irritation 
than   the  evil  which  they  are  intended  to  remedy. 

457.  What  should  be  avoided  in  viewing  objects  ?  458.  Why  should  we 
view  objects  at  different  distances  ?  459.  What  should  be  done  when 
particles  of  dust  get  upon  the  eye  ?  460.  How  can  particles  of  dust  be 
removed  from  the  upper  eyelid  ?  461.  What  should  be  avoided  ? 


&&5  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

CHAPTER    XXXIII. 

SENSE    OF    HEARING. 

462.  THE  sense  of  hearing  is  next  in  importance  to  that  of 
vision.     Through  this  sense  we  are  enabled  to  perceive  sounds 
that  not  only  subserve  to  our  comfort  and  pleasure,  but  are 
instrumental    to  our  intellectual  enjoyments.      The  organ  of 
hearing,  or  the  Ear,  is  one  of  the  most  complicated  in  the 
human  body. 

ANATOMY  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  HEARING. 

463.  The  EAR  is  composed  of  three  parts :    1st.  The  Ex- 
ter'nal  ear.     2d.  The   Tym 'pan-urn,  or  middle  ear.     3d.    The 
Lab'y-rinth,  or  internal  ear. 

464.  The  EXTERNAL  ear  presents  many  ridges  and  furrows, 
arising  from  the  folds  of  the  cartilage  that  form  it.     A  funnel- 
shaped  tube  extends  from  the  external  to  the  middle  ear. 

Observation.  Many  animals  have  small  muscles  that  move 
the  external  ear,  in  order  to  catch  sounds  from  every  direction 
The  hare,  rabbit,  and  horse,  afford  good  examples. 

465.  At  the  internal  extremity  of  the  tube,  is  a  thin,  semi- 
transparent  membrane,  that  separates  the  external  from  the 
middle   ear.     It  is  called  mem'bra-na   tym'pan-i,  or  drum  of 
the  ear.     This  and  the  bitter  wax  found  around  the  hairs  in  the 
tube,  prevent  insects  from  entering  the  head. 

466.  The  MIDDLE  ear  is  connected  with  the  internal   and 

462.  What  is  said  of  the  sense  of  hearing  ?  463 — 476.  Give  the  anatomy 
of  the  organs  of  hearing.  463.  Name  the  parts  of  the  ear.  464.  Describe  the 
external  ear.  What  is  said  of  the  ears  of  horses,  rabbits,  &c.  ?  465.  De- 
scribe the  drum  of  the  ear.  466.  How  is  the  middle  ear  connected  with 
the  internal  cavity  ? 


ANATOMY    OF    THE    ORGANS    OF    HEARING.  lOrf 

most  important  cavity,  by  four  small  bones,  which  are  the 
most  delicate  and  beautifully  shaped  bones  in  the  body. 
These  are  so  arranged,  as  to  form  a  chain  from  the  mem- 
brana tympani  of  the  ear  to  the  labyrinth. 

467.  From  the  middle  ear,  a  tube  opens  into  the  back  part 
of  the  throat,  called  Eu-sta'chi-an,  which  admits  air  into  tnis 
part  of  the  ear.  If  this  tube  is  closed  by  disease  of  the  throat, 
hearing  is  impaired. 


Fig.  81.  a,  The  external  ear.  c,  The  tube  that  leads  to  the  middle  ear.  g,  The 
membrana  tympani.  e,  k,  The  middle  ear.  &,/,  A,  The  internal  ear.  »,  The  tube  that 
leads  to  the  throat  cf,  The  auditory  nerve. 

468.  The  INTERNAL  ear  is  very  intricate,  and  the  uses  of 
its  various  parts  are  not  well  known.  It  is  called  the  labyrinth, 
from  its  many  windings.  This  part  of  the  ear  is  composed  of 
a  three-cornered  cavity,  called  the  ves'ti-bule,  the  coch'le-a, 
(from  its  resembling  a  snail-shell,)  and  the  sem-i-cir 'cu-lar  canals. 


467.  What  tube  opens  into  the  middle  ear  ?    What  is  its  use  ?    Explain 
fig.  81.    468.  Describe  the  internal  ear. 


154  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,   AND    HYGIENE. 

469.  The  internal  ear  is  the  only  part  that  is  absolutely 
essential  in  hearing.  Other  parts,  already  described,  may  be 
.'cmoved,  and  yet  the  person  may  hear. 


Fig.  82.     A  "View  of  the  labyrinth  laid  open.    This  figure   is   highly   magnified 

I,  1,  The  cochlea.    2,  2,  3,  3,  Two  channels,  that  wind  two  and  a  half  turns  around 
a  central  point,  (5.)    7,  The  central  portion  of  the   labyrinth,  called  the  vestibule. 

II,  12,  13,  14,  15,  16,  17,  18,  The  semicircular  canals.     The  cochlea  and  semicircular 
canals  open  into  the  vestibule. 

470.  The  AUDITORY  nerve,  or  nerve  of  hearing,  proceeds 
from  the  brain,  and  expands  upon  the  membrane  that  lines  the 
internal  ear,  similar  to  the  expansion  of  the  optic  nerve. 

4G9.  What  part  of  the  ear  is  absolutely  essential  in  hearing  ?  What  doe« 
fig.  82  represent  ?  470.  Describe  the  auditory  nerve. 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  HEARING. 


CHAPTER    XXXIV. 

PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  HEARING 

471.  HEARING  is  that  function  by  which  we  obtain  a  knowl- 
edge  of    the   vibratory   motions   of  bodies,   which   constitute 
sounds.     The  precise  function  of  all  the  different  parts  of  the 
ear  are  not  known. 

472.  The  function  of  the  external  ear,  is  to  collect  sounds 
and  reflect  them  into  the  tube  that  connects  the  external  with 
the  middle  ear.     The  "  membrana  tympani "  receives  all  the 
impressions  of  the  air  which  enter  the  tube,  and  conveys  them 
to  the  bones  of  the  ear.     It  also  serves  to  moderate  the  in- 
tensity of  sound. 

473.  The  supposed  office  of  the  middle  ear,  is  to  carry  the 
vibrations  made  on  the  membrana  tympani  to  the  internal  ear. 
This  is  effected  by  the  air  which  it  contains,  and  by  the  chain 
of  small  bones  that  are  enclosed  in  this  cavity. 

474.  But  little  is  known  of  the  functions  of  the  internal  ear ; 
its  parts  are  filled  with  a  watery  fluid  in  which  the  filaments  of 
the  auditory  nerve  terminate. 

475.  The  auditory  nerve,  like  the  optic,  has  but  one  function, 
that  of  special  sensibility,  or  transmitting  sound  to  the  brain. 
The  nerves   which  furnish  the  ear  with   ordinary  sensibility, 
proceed  from  the  fifth  pair. 

476.  The  transmission  of  sound  through  the  different  parts 

471 — 476.     Give  the  use  of  the  organs  of  hearing.     471.  What  is  hearing  r 

472.  What  is  the  function  of  the  external  ear  ?    Of  the  drum  of  the  ear  ? 

473.  What  is  the  use  of  the  middle  ear  ?    474.  What  is  said  of  the  func- 
tions of  the  internal  ear  ?    475.  Of  the  auditory  nerve  ? 


156 


ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    Hi'GJENJE. 


of  the  ear,  will  now  be  explained  by  the  aid  of  fig.  83.  The 
vibrations  of  the  air  are  collected  by  the  external  eav,  an<i 
conducted  through  the  tube  (1)  to  the  membrana  tympani,  (2.) 


Fig.  83. 


Fig.  83.  A  view  of  all  the  parts  of  the  ear.  1,  The  tube  that  leads  to  the  interml 
ear.  2,  The  membrana  tympani.  3, 4, 5,  The  bones  of  the  ear.  7,  The  central  part 
of  the  labyrinth  named  the  vestibuie.  8,  9,  10,  The  semicircular  canals.  !1, 12,  The 
channels  of  the  cochlea.  13,  The  auditory  nerve.  14,  The  channel  from  the  mid- 
dle ear  to  the  throat,  (eustachian  tube.)  15,  The  chorda  tympani  nerve.  16,  The 
styloid  process.  17,  The  seventh  pair  of  nerves,  (facial.)  18,  The  mastoid  process 
of  the  temporal  bone. 

From  the  membrana  tyrnpani  the  vibrations  pass  along  the 
chain  of  bones,  (3,  4,  5.)  The  bone  (5)  communicates  with 
the  internal  ear,  (7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  11,  11,  12,  12,  12.)  From 
the  internal _ear  the  impression  is  carried  to  the  brain  by  the 
auditory  nerve,  (13.) 

Note.  Let  the  pupil  review  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  ear  from 
rig.  83,  or  from  inatomical  outline  plate  10. 


KYCJIENE    OF    THE    ORGANS    OF    HEARING.  157 


HYGIENE  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  HEARING. 

477.  Hearing,  like  the  other  senses,  is  capable  of  very  great 
improvement.     By  cultivation,  the  blind  are  enabled  to  judge 
with  great  accuracy  the  distance  of  bodies  in  motion.    It  is  also 
capable  of  improvement  when  all  the  other  senses  are  perfect. 
Thus  the  Indian  will  distinguish  sounds  that  cannot  be  heard 
by  the  white  man. 

478.  If  this   sense  is  destroyed  in   early  life,  the   person 
also  loses   the  power  of  articulating  words.      Hence  a   man 
born  deaf  is  always  dumb. 

479.  Acute  hearing  requires  perfection  in  the  structure  and 
functions  of  the  different  parts  of  the  ear,  and  that  portion  of 
the  brain  from  which  the  auditory  nerve  proceeds. 

480.  The  common  causes  of  impaired  hearing,  are  a  thick- 
ening of  the  membrana  tympani  of  the  ear,  an  accumulation 
of  wax  upon  its  exterior  surface,  a  closure  of  the  eustachian 
tube,  disease  of  the  brain,  palsy  of  the  auditory  nerve,  and 
destruction  of  the  middle  and  internal  ear. 

481.  It  is  injurious  to  put  the  heads  of  pins  into  the  ear,  as 
they  frequently  cause  inflammation.     The  wax  can  be  softened 
by  dropping  into  the  tube  some  oil,  and  in  a  few  hours  remove 
it,  by  ejecting  warm  soap-suds  into  the  ear. 

Observation.  When  worms  and  insects  find  their  way  into 
the  tube  of  the  external  ear,  they  can  usually  be  driven  out,  by 
dropping  in  warm  olive-oil. 

477 — 481.  Give  the  hygiene  of  the  organs  of  hearing.  477.  Show  how  the 
faculty  of  hearing  is  capable  of  improvement.  478.  What  follows  the  loss 
of  hearing  in  early  life  ?  479.  On  what  does  acute  hearing  depend  ? 
480.  State  some  of  the  causes  of  impaired  hearing.  481.  What  caution  is 
given  respecting  the  use  of  pins  in  the  ear  ?  How  can  insects  be  removed 
from  the  ear  ? 


156  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER    XXXV. 

MEANS  OF  PRESERVING  THE  HEALTH. 

482.  OUR  bodies  are  constituted  according  to  certain  laws, 
and  every  person  should  learn  these,  in  order  to  regulate  his 
actions  and  duties,  so  that  the  health  may  be  unimpaired,  and 
the  power  of  enjoyment,  activity,  and  usefulness  continue  while 
life  lasts. 

483.  It  is  a  law  of  the  muscles,  that  they  should  either  be 
used  in  some  occupation,  or  called  into  action  by  some  social 
play  and  active  sport.     (See  Chap.  V11I.) 

484.  All  admit  that  food  is  necessary  to  sustain  life;  and 
unless  it  be  of  a  proper  quality,  taken  in  proper  quantities,  and 
at  proper  times,  the  Sanctions  of  the  digestive  organs  will  be 
deranged,  and  disease  produced.     (See  Chap.  XII.) 

485.  Pure  air  is  essential  to  the  full  enjoyment  of  health. 
The  close,  impure  air  of  heated  rooms  and  crowded  assemblies 
may  be  breathed,  and  the  effect  be  so  gradual  as  not  to  arrest 
attention ;  yet   it   is  a  violation  of  the    physical    laws.     (See 
Chap.  XXI.) 

486.  The  body  also  requires  sleep ;  and  if  it  is  not  taken  at 
the  right  time,  or  with  regularity,  we  do  not  feel  a  full  refresh- 
ment from  "  tired  nature's  sweet  restorer."     Let  youth  be  taught 
that  "  early  to  bed  and  early  to  rise  "  gives  him  health  and  its 
attendant  blessings.     The  brain,  like  other  organs  of  the  body, 
should  be  called  into  action  at  proper  times.  (See  Chap.  XXIX.) 

482.  Why  is  it  incumbent  on  every  person  to  learn  the  laws  of  health  ? 
483.  Give  a  law  of  the  muscles.  484.  In  preserving  the  health,  why  is  it 
necessary  to  give  attention  to  the  food  which  is  oaten  ?  485.  What  beside 
food  is  essential  to  the  full  enjoyment  of  health  ?  What  is  said  of  the  im- 
pure air  of  heated  rooms  and  crowded  assemblies  ?  486.  What  should  be 
observed  in  regard  to  sleep  ? 


REMOVAL    OF    DISEASE  159 

487.  From  the  extent  of  the  surface  of  the  skin,  and  the 
close  sympathy  that  exists  between  it  and  those  organs  whose 
office  is  to  remove  the  waste  particles  of  matter  from  the  body, 
it  is,  therefore,  very  important  in  the  preservation  of  the  health, 
that  the  functions  of  this  membrane  be  properly  maintained 
(See  Chap.  XXVI.) 

REMOVAL  OF  DISEASE. 

• 

488.  It  is  seldom  that  a  physician  is  called  in  the  first  stages 
of  disease.     At  this  period,  the  treatment  adopted  should  be 
proper  and  judicious,  or  the  sufferings  of  the  patient  are  in- 
creased, and  life,  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  is  jeopardized. 
Hence  the  utility  of  knowing  what  should  be  done,  and  what 
should  not  be  done,  in  order  that  the  health   may  be  rapidly 
regained. 

489.  In  al/  instances  of  acute  disease,  it  is  proper  to  rest, 
not  only  the  body,  but  the  mind.     To  effect  this,  the  patient 
should  cease  from    physical   exertion,  and  also  withdraw  his 
thoughts  from  study  and  business  operations.     This  should  be 
done,  even  if  the  person  is  but  slightly  indisposed. 

490.  Select  a  room  for  a  sick  person  that  is  exposed  to  as 
little  external    noise  as  possible,  as  impressions  made  on  the 
ear  greatly  influence  the  nervous  system.     Likewise  select  a 
spacious,  well-ventilated   apartment,  that   has   no   superfluous 
furniture.     The  practice  of  placing  a  sick  person  in  a  small, 
ill-arranged  sleeping-room,  when  a  more  spacious  room  can  be 
used,  is  poor  economy,  not  to  say  unkind. 

491.  Care  is  necessary  in  regulating  the  light  of  a  sick-room. 
While  a  strong  light  would  produce  an  increased  action  of  the 
vessels  of  the  brain,  on  the  contrary,  a  moderate  light  would  be 

487.  Why  should  the  functions  of  the  skin  be  properly  maintained  ? 
488.  What  is  important  in  the  first  stages  of  disease  ?  489.  What  is  proper 
in  all  instances  of  acute  disease  ?  How  can  it  be  effected  ?  490.  What 
rooms  should  be  selected  for  the  sick  ?  Why  ?  491.  What  is  said  in  refer- 
ence to  the  quantity  of  light  admitted  into  a  sick-room  ? 


160  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY,   AND   HYG.  ENE. 

an  appropriate  stimulus  to  this  organ.     It  is  seldom  necessary 
to  exclude  all  light  from  the  sick  chamber. 

492.  A  sick  person,  whether  a  child  or  an  adult,  should  not 
be  disturbed  by  visitors,  even  if  their  calls  i      short.     The  ex 
citement  of  meeting  them  is  followed  by  »        pression  of  the 
nervous  system.     The  more  dangerous  and  apparently  nearer 
death  the  sick  person  is,  the  more  rigorous  should  be  the  obser- 
vance of  this  suggestion. 

493.  Nor   should  the   sick-room    be   opened  to   privileged 
classes ;  for  the  excitement   caused  by  a  visit  from    relations 
and  the  virtuous,  will  do  as  much  injury  to  the  sick,  as  that 
produced  by  strangers  and  the  vicious.     The  custom  of  visiting 
and  conversing  with  sick  friends  during  the  intervals  of  daily 
labor,  and  particularly  on  Sunday,  is  a  great  evil.     No  person 
will  thus  intrude  herself  in  the  sick  chamber,  who  cares  more 
for  the  welfare  of  the  suffering  friend  than  the  gratification  of 
a  sympathetic  curiosity.     Inquiries  can  be  made  of  the  family 
respecting  the  sick,  and  complimentary  or  necessary  messages 
can  be  communicated  through  the  nurse. 

Illustration.  While  attending  a  Miss  B.,  of  N.  H.,  sick  of 
fever,  I  pronounced  her  better,  withdrew  medicine,  directed 
a  simple,  low  diet,  and  the  exclusion  of  all  visitors.  In  the 
evening,  I  was  sent  for,  to  attend  her.  There  was  a  violent 
relapse  into  the  disease,  which  continued  to  increase  in  severity 
until  the  fourth  day,  when  death  terminated  her  sufferings.  1 
learned  that,  soon  after  I  gave  directions  that  no  visitors  be  ad- 
mitted into  her  room,  several  particular  friends  were  permitted 
to  enter  the  chamber  and  talk  with  the  sick  girl.  Their  conver- 
sation produced  a  severe  headache  ;  and,  to  use  the  language 
of  the  patient,  "  it  seemed  as  if  their  talk  would  kill  me';"  and 
it  did  kill  her. 

494.  No  solid  food  should  be  taken  in  the  first  stages  of  dis- 

492.  What  effect  have  calls  on  the  sick  ?  493.  What  is  said  of  the  cus- 
tom of  calling  and  conversing  with  the  sick  during  the  intervals  of  daily 
labor  ?  Give  an  illustration.  494.  What  suggestions  relative  to  food,  in 
the  first  stages  of  disease  ? 


REMOVAL    OF   DISEASE.  161 

ease,  even  if  the  affection  is  slight.  The  thirst  can  be  allayed 
by  drinking  cold  water,  barley-water,  and  other  preparations  of 
an  unstimulating  character.  It  is  wrong  to  tempt  the  appetite 
of  a  person  who  is  indisposed.  The  cessation  of  a  desire  for 
food,  is  the  warning  of  Nature,  that  the  system  is  in  such  a  state 
that  it  cannot  be  digested. 

495.  When  a  patient  is  recovering   from  illness,  the  food 
should  be  simple,  and  in  quantities  not  so  great  as  to  oppress 
the  stomach.     It  should  also  be  given  with  regularity.     "  Eat 
little  and  often,"  with  no  regard  to  regularity,  is  a  bad  practice. 

496.  When  a  physician   attends  a  sick  person,  he   should 
have  the  special  management  of  the  food,  particularly  after  the 
medicine  has  been  withdrawn  and  the  patient  is  convalescent. 
The  prevailing  idea  that  every  person  may  safely  advise  rela- 
tive to  food,  or  that  the  appetite  of  the  convalescing  person 
will  guide   correctly,  is  dangerous,  and  cannot  be  too  much 
censured. 

Illustration.  In  1832,  I  attended  a  Miss  M.,  sick  of  fever. 
After  an  illness  of  a  few  days,  the  fever  abated,  and  I  directed 
a  simple,  unstimulating  diet.  Business  called  me  from  the  town 
two  days.  During  my  absence,  an  officious  matron  called  ; 
found  her  weak,  but  improving ;  and  told  her  she  needed  food 
to  strengthen  her ;  and  "  it  would  now  do  her  good."  Accord- 
ingly, a  piece  of  beefsteak  was  prepared,  and  given  to  the  con- 
valescent girl.  She  ate  heartily,  and  the  result  was,  a  relapse 
into  a  fever  more  violent  than  the  first  attack. 

497.  It  is  very  important  in  disease  that  the  skin  be  kept 
clean.     A  free  action  of  the  vessels  of  this  part  of  the  body 
exerts  a  great  influence  in  removing  disease  from  the  internal 
organs,  as  well  as  keeping  them  in  health.     If  the  thirty  ounces 

495.  When  the  patient  is  convalescent,  how  should  the  food  be  given  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  practice  of  eating  "  little  and  often "  ?  496.  Who 
should  have  the  special  management  of  food  when  medicine  is  withdrawn  ? 
What  idea  prevails  in  the  community  ?  Give  an  illustration  of  the  evil 
effects  attending  such  an  idea.  497.  Does  the  skin  exert  a  great  influence 
in  removing  disease  from  the  internal  organs,  as  well  as  in  keeping  thero 
in  health  ? 

14* 


162  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

of  waste,  hurtful  matter,  that  passes  through  the  "  pores"  of  the 
•-.kin  in  twenty-four  hours,  is  not  removed  by  frequent  bathing 
and  dry  rubbing,  the  action  of  these  vessels  is  deranged,  which 
increases  the  disease  of  the  internal  organs. 

Illustration.  Mrs.  M.  R.,  of  N.,  Mass.,  was  afflicted  with 
disease  of  the  lungs  and  cough.  This  was  accompanied  with  a 
dry,  inactive  condition  of  the  skin.  As  medicine  had  no  salu- 
tary effect  in  relieving  her  cough,  she  was  induced  by  the 
advice  of  the  clergyman  of  the  parish  to  enter  upon  a  system- 
atic course  of  bathing  twice  every  day.  Soon  the  skin  became 
soft,  its  proper  functions  were  restored,  the  disease  o^  .ne  lungs 
yielded,  and  the  cough  disappeared. 

498.  The  sick-room  should  be  kept  very  cleart,  and  in  per- 
fect order.     When  a  sick  person  sees  every  thing  neat  and  in 
its  proper  place,  a  feeling  of  comfort  is  induced,  which  aids  in 
the  recovery  of  the  health ;  while  filth  and  disorder  are  objects 
of  annoyance,  and  tend  to  depress  the  nervous  system. 

499.  Every  sick  person  should  breathe  pure  air.     The  purer 
the  blood  that  courses  through  the  body,  the  greater  the  energy 
of  the  system  to  remove  disease.     The  confined,  vitiated  air  of 
the  sick-chamber  not  unfrequently  prolongs  disease ;   and   in 
many  instances,  the  affection  is  not  only  aggravated,  but  even 
rendered  fatal,  by  its  injurious  influences. 

Illustrations.  1st.  In  1833,  I  was  called,  in  consultation 
with  another  physician,  to  Mr.  II.,  who  was  much  debilitated 
and  delirious.  For  several  successive  days  he  had  not  slept. 
His  room  was  kept  very  warm  and  close,  for  fear  he  would 
"  take  cold."  The  only  change  that  I  made  in  the  treatment, 
was  to  open  the  door  and  window,  at  a  distance  from  the  bed.  In 
a  short  time,  the  delirium  ceased,  ai.J  he  fell  into  a  quiet  slum- 
ber. From  this  time  he  rapidly  recovered,  and  I  have  no  doubt 
that  the  delirium  was  the  result  of  breathing  impure  air. 

498.  How  should  the  sick-room  be  kept  ?  499.  Why  should  every  sick 
person,  particularly,  breathe  pure  air  ?  Are  not  diseases  prolonged,  and 
even  rendered  fatal,  from  breathing  the  impure,  vitiated  air  of  the  sick 
chamber  ?  Give  illustration  1st. 


REMOVAL    OF    DISEASE.  163 

2d.  Formerly,  every  precaution  was  used  to  prevent  persons 
sick  of  the  small-pox  from  breathing  fresh  air.  When  Mrs. 
Ramsay  had  this  disease  in  Charleston,  S.  C.,  her  friends,  sup- 
posing that  life  was  extinct,  caused  her  body  to  be  removed 
from  the  house  to  an  open  shed.  The  pure  air  revived  the  vital 
spark,  and  she  lived  to  be  an  ornament  to  her  sex. 

500.  MEDICINE  is  sometimes  necessary  to  assist  the  natural 
powers  of  the  system  to  remove  disease  ;  but  it  is  only  an  assis- 
tant.    While  emetics  are  occasionally  useful  in  removing  food 
and  other  articles  from  the  stomach,  that  would  cause  disease 
if  suffered  to  remain,  and  cathartics  are  valuable,  in  some  in- 
stances, to  relieve  the  alimentary  canal  of  irritating  residuum, 
yet  the  frequent  administration  of  either  will  cause  serious  dis- 
ease. 

501.  Although  medicine  is  useful  in  some  instances,  yet,  in 
a  great  proportion  of  the  cases  of  disease,  including  fevers  and 
inflammations  of  all  kinds,  attention  to  the  laws  of  health  will 
tend  to  relieve  the  system  from  disease,  more  certainly  and 
speedily,   and    with    less   danger,   than   when    medicines   are 
administered. 

502.  Thomas  Jefferson,  in  writing  to  Dr.  Wistar,  of  Phila 
delphia.  said,  •  I  would  have  the  physician  learn  the  limit  of  lib, 
an.  '     1  would  say,  Have  those  who  are  continually  advising 
"  herb  teas,  p^is,  bitters,"  and  other  "  cure-alls,"  for  any  com- 
plaint, labelled  with  some  popular  name,  learn  the  limits  of 
their  duty,  namely,  attention  to  the  laws  of  health.     The  rule 
of  every  family,  and  each  individual,  should  be,  to  touch  not, 
taste  not,  of  medicine  of  any  kind,  except  when  directed  by 
a  well-educated  and  honest  physician,  (sudden  disease  from 
accidents  excepted.) 

Give   illustration    2d.      500.    What  is    said  of  the  use  of  mediciue  ? 

501.  What  is  said  of  its  use  in  fevers   and  many  other  cases  of  disea.se  ? 

502.  What  remark  by  Thomas  Jefferson  to  Dr.  Wistar  ?     What  should  be 
the  nde  of  every  person  in  regard  to  taking  medicine  ?    What  exception  ? 


164  ANATOMY,   PHYSIOLOGY,   AND   HYGIENE. 

CHAPTER    XXXVI 

DIRECTIONS    FOR    NURSES. 

503.  THE  nurse  requires  knowledge  and  practice  to  enable 
her  to  discharge   aright  her  duty  to  the  patient,  as  much  as 
•.he  physician  and  surgeon  do  to  perform  what  is  incumbent 
on  them.     Woman,  from  her  constitution   and  habits,  is  the 
natural   nurse  of  the  sick ;  and,  in  general,  no  small   portion 
of  her  time  is  spent  in  ministering  at.  the  couch  of  disease  and 
suffering. 

504.  As  the  young  and   vigorous,  as  well  as  the  aged  and 
the  infirm,  are  liable  to  be  laid  upon  the  bed  of  sickness,  by  an 
epidemic,  or  imprudent  exposure,  or  by  some  accident,  it  is 
therefore  necessary  that  the  girl,  as  well  as  the  matron,  may 
know  how  she  can  render  service^  in  an  efficient  and  proper 
manner.     No  girl  should  consider  her  education  complete  who 
is  not  acquainted  with  the  principles  of  the  duties  of  a  general 
nurse  and  a  temporary  watcher. 

505.  It  is  to  be  regretted,   that,  while    we   have   medical 
schools  and  colleges  to  educate  physicians,  there  is  no  institu- 
tion to  educate  nurses  in  their  equally  responsible  station.     In 
the  absence  of  such  institutions,  the  defect  can  be  remedied,  to 
some  extent,  by  teaching  every  girl   hygiene  or  the  laws  of 
health.     To  make  such  knowledge  more  available  and  com- 
plete, attention  is  invited  to  the  following  suggestions  relative 
to  the  practical  duties  of  a  nurse. 

506.  BATHING.     The   nurse,  before   commencing  to  bathe 

503.  Does  the  nurse  require  knowledge  and  practice  in  her  employment, 
as  well  as  the  physician  ?  504.  Who  is  the  natural  nurse  of  the  sick  ? 
What,  then,  is  incujnbent  on  every  girl  ?  505.  Should  there  be  schools  tc 
educate  nurses,  as  well  as  physicians  and  surgeons  ?  506.  What  should  ? 
nurse  provide  herself  with,  before  bathing  a  patient  ? 


•  BISECTIONS    FOR    NURSES.  165 

the  patient,  should  provide  herself  with  water,  two  towels,  a 
sponge,  a  piece  of  soft  flannel,  and  a  sheet,  aftd  also  notice 
the  temperature  of  the  room. 

507.  When  the  patient  is  feeble,  use  tepid  or  warm  water. 
Cold  water  should  only  be  used  when  the  system  has  vigor 
enough  to  produce  reaction  upon  the  skin.      This    is    shown 
by  the  increased  redness  of  the  skin,  and  a  feeling  of  warmth 
and  comfort.     Before   using  the  sponge  to  bathe,  a  sheet,  or 
fold  of  cloth,  should  be  spread  smoothly  over  the  bed,  and  un- 
der the  patient,  to  prevent  the  bed-linen  on  which  the  patient 
lies  from  becoming  damp  or  wet. 

508.  Apply  the  wet  sponge  to  one  part  of  the  body  at  a 
time  ;  as  the  arm,  for  instance.     By  doing  so,  the  liability  of 
contracting  chills  is  diminished.     Take  a  dry,  soft  towel,  wipe 
the  bathed   part,  and  follow  this  by  vigorous  rubbing  with  a 
crash  towel,  or,  what  is  better,  a  mitten  made  of  this  material ; 
then  use  briskly  a  piece  of  soft  flannel,  to  remove  all  moisture 
that  may  exist  on  the  skin,  and  particularly  between  the  fingers 
and  the  flexions  of  the  joints.     In  this  manner  bathe  the  entire 
body. 

509.  The  sick  should  be  thoroughly  bathed,  at  least  twice 
in  twenty-four  hours.     Particular  attention  should  be  given  to 
the  parts  between  the  fingers  and  toes,  and  about  the  joints,  as 
the  accumulation  of  the  waste  matter  is  most  abundant  on  these 
parts.     In  bathing,  these  portions  of  the  system  are  very  gen- 
erally neglected.     The    best   time  for   bathing,  is  when   the 
patient  feels  the   most  vigorous,  and   freest  from   exhaustion. 
The    practice,  of  daubing    the   face  and  hands  with   a  towel 
dipped  in  hot  rum,  camphor,   and    vinegar,  does  not  remove 
the  impurities,  but    causes   the    skin    soon  to  feel  dry,  hard, 
and  uncomfortable. 

507.  When  should  cold  water  be  used  ?  508.  How  should  the  bathing 
then  be  performed,  so  that  the  patient  may  not  contract  a  cold  ?  509.  How 
often  should  a  sick  person  be  bathed  ?  What  is  said  of  daubing  the  face 
and  hands  merely  with  a  wet  cloth  ? 


i6'6  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND    HYGIENE. 

510.  FOOD.     It  is  the  duty  of  every  woman  to  know  how  10 
make  the  simplest  preparations  adapted  to  a  low  die^t,  in  (he 
most  wholesome  and  the  most  palatable  way.     Water-gruel,* 
which  is  the  simplest  of  all  preparations,  is  frequently  so  ill 
made  as  to  cause  the  patient  to  loathe  it.     Always  prepare  the 
food  for  the  sick  in  the  neatest  and  most  careful  manner. 

511.  When  the  physician  enjoins  abstinence  from  food,  the 
nurse  should  strictly  pbey  the   injunction.     She  should  be  as 
particular  to  know  the  physician's  directions  about  diet,  as  in 
knowing  how  and  when  to  give  the  prescribed  medicines,  and 
obey  them  as  implicitly. 

512.  When  a  patient  is  convalescing,  the  desire  for  food  is 
generally  strong,  and  it  often  requires  firmness  and  patience, 
together  with  great  care,  on  the  part  of  the  nurse,  that  the  food 
is  prepared  suitably,  and  given  at  proper  times.     The  physician 
should  direct  how  frequently  it  should  be  taken. 

513.  PURE  AIR.     It  is  the  duty  of  the  nurse  to  see  that  not 
only  the  room  is  well  ventilated  in  the  morning,  but  that  fresh 
air  is  constantly  coming  in  during  the  day.     Great  care  must 
be  taken,  however,  that  the  patient  does  not  feel  the  current. 

514.  Bed-linen,  as  well  as  that  of  the  body,  should  be  aired 
every  day,  and  oftener  changed  in  sickness  than  in    health. 
All  clothing,  when  changed,  should  be  well  dried,  and  warmed 
by  a  fire  previous  to  its  being  put  on  the  patient  or  the  bed. 

515.  TEMPERATURE.     The  warmth  of  the  chamber  should 
be  carefully  watched  by  the  nurse.     The  feelings  of  the  patient 


*  Directions  for  making  the  simple  preparations  for  the  sick  are 
found  in  almost  every  cook-book. 

510.  Should  every  woman  know  how  to  make  the  simple  preparations 
adapted  to  a  low  diet  ?  511.  Should  the  nurse  strictly  obey  the  injunctions 
of  the  physician  relative  to  food  ?  512.  What  period  of  a  person's  illness 
requires  the  most  care  in  regard  to  the  food  ?  513.  Give  another  duty  ot 
the  nurse.  514.  What  directions  respecting  the  bed-linen  of  the  patient  ? 
What  is  necessary  when  there  is  a  change  of  clothing  ?  515.  Why  should 
there  be  a  well-adjusted  thermometer  in  every  sick-chamber  ? 


REMOVAL    OF    DISEASE.  1(>7 

or  nurse  are  not  to  be  relied  on,  as  an  index  of  the  temperature 
of  the  room.  Thefe  should  be  a  well-adjusted  thermometer  in 
every  sick-room.  This  should  be  frequently  consulted  by  the 
nurse. 

516.  The  temperature  of  the  sick-chamber  should  be  mod- 
erate.    If  it  is  so  cold  as  to  cause  a  chill,  the  disease  will  be 
aggravated.     If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  too  warm,  the  patient 
is  enfeebled  and  rendered  more  susceptible  to  cold  on  leaving 
the  sick-chamber.     The  Latin  maxim,  "7w  media  tutissimus 
ibis"  (in  medium  there  is  most  safety,)  should  be  regarded  in 
the  rooms  of  the  sick. 

517.  QUIET.     The  room  of  the  patient  should  be  kept  free 
of  noise.     The  community  should  be  guided  by  this  rule,  that 
no  more  persons  remain  in  the  room  of  the  sick,  than  the  wel- 
fare of  the  patient  demands.     It  is  the  duty  of  the  physician  to 
direct  when  visitors   can    be   admitted  or  excluded  from   the 
sick-room,  and  the  nurse  should  see  that  these  directions  are 
enforced. 

518.  The  movements  of  the  attendants  should  be  gentle  and 
noiseless.     Shutting  doors  violently,  creaking  hinges  or  shoes, 
and  all  unnecessary  noise,  should  be  avoided.     Most  persons 
refrain  from  loud   talking  in    the  sick-chamber,   but   are   not 
equally  careful   to  abstain   from   whispering,  which   is   often 
more  trying  than  a  common  tone. 

519.  The  deportment  and  remarks  of  the  nurse  to  the  patient 
should  be  calm  and  encouraging.     The  illness  of  a  friend,  or 
persons  who  have  recently  died,  should  not  be  alluded  to  in  the 
sick-room.     No  doubts  or  fears  of  the  patient's  recovery,  either 
by  a  look  or  by  a  word,  should  be  communicated* by  the  nurse 
in  the  chamber  of  the  sick. 


516.  What  is  said  of  the  temperature  of  the  sick-chamber  ?  517.  Should 
the  sick-room  be  kept  quiet?  518.  "What  is  said  of  noise  in  the  sick- 
chamber?  Of  whispering?  519.  What  should  be  the  deportment  of  the 
nurse  toward  the  patient  ?  Should  doubts  and  fears  of  the  patient's 
recovery  be  communicated  in  the  sick-room  ? 


108  ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY,    AND   HYGIENE. 

520.  When  such  information  is  necessary  to  be  communi- 
cated, it  is  the  duty  of  the  physician  to  impart  it  to  the  sick 
person. 

521.  The  nurse  should  not  confine  herself  to  the  sick-room 
more  than  six  hours  at  a  time.     She  should  eat  her  food  regu- 
larly, sleep  at  regular  periods,  and  take  exercise  daily  in  the 
open  air.     To  do  this,  let  her  quietly  leave  the  room  when  the 
patient  is  sleeping.     A  watcher,  or  temporary  nurse,  may  supply 
her  place.     There  is  but  little  danger  of  contracting  disease,  if 
the  nurse  attends  to  the  simple  laws  of  health,  and  remains  not 
more  than  six  hours  at  a  time  in  the  sick-room. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  WATCHERS. 

522.  These  necessary  assistants,  like  the  nurse,  should  have 
knowledge  and  practice.     They  should  ever  be  cheerful,  gentle, 
firm,  and  attentive,  in  the  presence  of  the  patient. 

523.  A  simple,  nutritious   supper  should  be  eaten   before 
entering  the  sick-room;  and  it  is  well,  during  the   night,  tc 
take  some  plain  food. 

524?  When  watching  in  cold  weather,  a  person  should  be 
warmly  dressed,  and  furnished  with  an  extra  garment,  as  a 
cloak  or  shawl,  because  the  system  becomes  exhausted  toward 
morning,  and  less  heat  is  generated  in  the  body. 

525.  Whatever  may  be  wanted  during  the  night,  should  be 
brought  into  the  sick-chamber,  or  the  adjoining  room,  before 
the  family  retires  for  sleep,  in  order  that  the  slumbers  of  the 
patient  be  not  disturbed  by  haste,  or  searching  for  needed 
articles. 


-520.  When  necessary  to  impart  such  intelligence,  on  whom  does  it  de- 
pend ?  521.  How  long  should  a  nurse  remain  in  the  sick-chamber  at  a 
time  ?  522.  What  qualifications  are  necessary  in  a  watcher  ?  523.  What 
directions  in  regard  to  the  food  of  the  watcher  ?  524.  When  watching  in 
cold  weather,  what  precaution  is  necessary  ?  525.  What  suggestion  U 
watchers  ? 


DIRECTIONS    FOR   WATCHERS.  169 

526.  The  same  general  directions  should   be  observed  by 
watchers,  as  are  given  to  the  nurse ;  nor  should  the  watcher 
deern  it  necessary  to  make  herself  acceptable  to  the  patient  by 
agreeable  conversation. 

527.  It  can  hardly  be  expected  that  the  farmer,  who  has 
been  laboring  hard  in  the  field,  or  the  mechanic,  who  has  toiled 
during  the  day.  is  qualified  to  render  all  those  little  attentions 
that  a  sick  person  requires.      Hence,  would  it  not   be  more 
benevolent  and  economical  to  employ  and  pay  watchers,  who 
are  qualified  by  knowledge  and  training,  to  perform  this  duty 
in  a  faithful  manner,  while  the  kindness  and  sympathy   of 
friends  may  be  practically  manifested  by  assisting  to  defray 
the  expenses  of  these  qualified  and  useful  assistants  ? 

626.  What  should  watchers  observe  ?    527.  What  is  said  of  employing 
tnose  persom  to  watch  who  labor  hard  during  the  dav  e 
15 


APPENDIX. 


* 
POISONS    AND    THEIR    ANTIDOTEb. 

628.  POISONING,  either  from  accident  or  design,  is  of  such  frequency  and 
danger,  that  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  every  person  should  know 
the  proper  mode  of  procedure  in  such  cases,  in  order  to  render  immediate 
assistance  when  within  his  power. 

529.  Poisons  are  divided  into  two  classes  —  mineral  i  which  will  include 
the  acids)  and  vegetable. 

530.  The  first  thing,  usually,  to  be  done,  when  it  is  ascertained  that  a 
poison  has   been  swallowed,  is  to  evacuate  the   stomach,  unless   vomit- 
ing takes  place  spontaneously.     Emetics  of  ground  mustard,  or  the  sul- 
phate of  zinc,  (white  vitriol,)  or  ipecacuanha,  (ipecac,)  or  the  wine    >f 
antimony,  should  be  given. 

531.  When  vomiting  has  commenced,  it  should  be  aided  by  large  and 
frequent  draughts  of  the  following  drinks :  flaxseed  tea,  gum-water,  slip- 
pery-elm tea,  barley-water,  sugar  and  water,  or  any  thing  of  a  mucilaginous 
or  diluent  character. 

MINERAL  POISONS. 

532.  AMMONIA.  —  The  water  of  ammonia,  if  taken  in  an  over-dose,  and 
in  an  undiluted  state,  acts  as  a  violent  corrosive  poison. 

533.  The  best  and  most  effectual  antidote  is  vinegar.    It  should  be  ad- 

528.  Is  it  useful  to  know  the  antidotes  or  remedies  for  poison?  529.  Into  how  many 
classes  are  poisons  divided  ?  530.  What  is  the  first  thing  to  be  done  when  it  is  ascor- 
taim  that  poison  has  been  swallowed  ?  531.  What  should  be  taken  after  the  vomit 
ing  has  commenced'  532.  What  effect  has  an  over-dose  of  ammonia?  533.  The 


APPENDIX. 

ministered  in  water,  without  delay.    It  neutralizes  the  ammonia,  and  ren- 
ders it  inactive.     Emetics  should  not  be  given. 

534.  ANTIMONY.  —  The  toine  of  antimony  and  tartar  emetic,  if  taken  in 
over-doses,  cause  distressing  vomiting.     In  addition  to  the  diluent,  mu- 
cilaginous drinks,  give  a  tea-spoonful  of  the  sirup  of  poppies,  paregoric,  or 
twenty  drops  of  laudanum,  every  twenty  minutes,  until  five  or  six  doses 
have  been  taken,  or  the  vomiting  ceases. 

535.  The  antidotes  are  nut-galls  and  oak  bark,  which  may  be  administered 
in  infusion,  or  by  steeping  in  water. 

536.  ARSENIC. — When  this  has  been  taken,  administer  an  emetic  of 
ipecac,  speedily,  in  mucilaginous  teas,  and  use  the  stomach-pump  as  soon 
as  possible. 

537.  The  antidote  is  the  hydrated  peroxide  of  iron.     It  should  be  kept 
constantly  on  hand  at  the  apothecaries'  shops.     It  may  be  given  in  any 
quantity,  without  injurious  results. 

538.  COPPER.  —  The  most  common  cause  of  poisoning  from  this  metal, 
is  through  the  careless  use  of  cooking  utensils  made  of  it,  on  which  the 
acetate  of  copper  ( verdigris)  has  been  allowed  to  form.     When  trfls  has  been 
taken,  immediately  induce  vomiting,  give   mucilaginous   drinks,  or    the 
v/iite  of  egys,  diffused  in  water. 

539.  The  antidote  is  the  carbonate  of  soda,  which  should  be  administered 
without  delay. 

510.  LEAP.  — The  acetate  (sugar)  of  lead  is  the  preparation  of  this  metal 
which  is  liable  to  be  taken  accidentally,  in  poisonous  doses.  Induce  imme- 
diate vomiting,  by  emetics  and  diluent  drinks. 

541.  The  antidote  is  diluted  sulphuric  acid.     When  this  acid  is  not  to  be 
obtained,  either  the  sulphate  of  magnesia,  (epsom  salts,)  or  the  sulphate 
of  soda,  (glauber's  salts,)  will  answer  every  purpose. 

542.  MERCURY. — The  preparation  of  this  mineral  by  which  poisoning  is 


Should  an  emetic  be  given  for  this  poison  ?  534.  What  effect  has  an  over-dose  of 
the  wine  of  antimony  or  tartar  emetic?  535.  What  is  the  antidote'  536.  What 
should  immediately  be  done  when  arsenic  is  swallowed?  537.  What  is  the  anti- 
dote? Can  any  quantity  of  this  preparation  of  iron  be  given  without  injurious  nv 
suits?  538.  What  should  be  given  when  verdigris  has  been  taken  into  the  stomach: 
539.  What  is  the  antidote?  540.  What  should  immediately  be  given  when  suga: 
of  1-ad  is  taken1  541.  What  is  the  antidote? 


172  APPENDIX. 

commonly  produced,  is  corrosive  sublimate.  The  mode  of  treatment  to  he 
pursued,  when  this  poison  has  been  swallowed,  is  as  follows  :  The  whites 
of  a  dozen  eggs  should  be  beaten  in  two  quarts  of  cold  water,  and  a  tum- 
bler-full given  every  two  minutes,  to  induce  vomiting.  When  the  whites 
of  eggs  are  not  to  be  obtained,  soap  and  water  should  be  mixed  with 
wheat  flour,  and  given  in  copious  draughts,  and  the  stomach-pump  in- 
troduced as  soon  as  possible.  Emetics  or  irritating  substances  ought  not 
-i  je  given. 

543.  NITKE —  Saltpetre.     This,  in  over-doses,  produces  violent  poison- 
ous symptoms.     Vomiting  should  be  immediately  induced  by  large  doses 
of  mucilaginous,  diluent  drinks  ;   but  emetics,  which  irritate  the  stomach, 
ought  not  to  be  given. 

544.  ZINC.  —  Poisoning  is   sometimes   caused  by  the  sulphate  of  zinc, 
(white   vitriol.)     "When    this   takes    place,  vomiting    should  be  induced, 
and  aided  by  large  draughts  of  mucilaginous  and  diluent  drinks.     Use 
the  stomach-pump  as  soon  as  possible. 

545.  The  antidote  is  the  carbonate  or  super-carbonate  of  soda. 


546.  NITRIC,  (aqua  fortis,)   MURIATIC,   (marine  acid,)    or  SULPHTJRIC 
(oil  of  vitriol)  ACIDS,  may  be  taken  by  accident,  and  produce  poisonous 
effects. 

547.  The  antidote  is  calcined  magnesia,  which  should  be  freely  admin- 
istered, to   neutralize   the  acid   and  induce  vomiting.     When  magnesia 
cannot  be  obtained,  the  carbonate  of  potash   (salseratus)   may  be    given. 
Chalk,  powdered  and  given  in  solution,  or  strong  soap  suds,  will  answei 
a  good  purpose,  Avhen  the  other  articles  are  not  at  hand.     It  is  of  vejy 
great  importance  that  something  be  given  speedily  to  neutralize  the  acid. 
One  of  the  substances  before  named  should  be  taken  freely,  in  diluent  and 
mucilaginous  drinks ;    as  gum-water,  milk,  flaxseed  or  slippery-elm   tea. 
Emetics  ought  to  be  avoided. 

548.  OXALIC  ACID. — This  acid  resembles  the  sulphate  of  magnesia, 
(epsom  salts,)  which  renders  it  liable  to  be  taken,  by  mistake,  in  poison- 
ous   doses.      Many    accidents    have    occurred    from    this    circumstance. 
They  can  easily  be  distinguished  by  tasting   a   small   quantity.     Epsom 

542.  Give  the  treatment  when  corrosive  sublimate  has  been  swallowed.  543.  What 
effect  has  an  over-dose  of  saltpetre  ?  What  treatment  should  be  adopted  ?  544.  What 
is  the  treatment  and  antidote  for  white  vitriol  ?  547.  What  is  the  antidote  for  aq  la 
fortis  and  oil  of  vitriol  ?  Should  emetics  be  avoided  ?  548.  How  can  oxalic  acid  be 
distinguished  from  epsom  salts? 


APPENDIX.  173 

talti,  when  applied  to  the  tongue,  have  a  very  bitter  taste,  while  oxalic 
acid  is  intensely  sour. 

549.  The  antidote  is  magnesia,  between  which  and  the  acid  a  chemical 
action  takes  place,  producing  the  oxalate  of  magnesia,  which  is   inert. 
When   magnesia   is   not   at    hand,   chalk,    lime,  or   carbonate  of  potash, 
(salaeratus,)  will  answer  as  a  substitute. 

550.  Give  the  antidote  in  some  of  the  mucilaginous  drinks  before  named. 
No  time  ought  to  be  lost,  but  the  stomach-pump  should  be  introduced  as 
soon  as  a  surgeon  can  be  obtained. 

551.  LEY.  —  The  ley  obtained  by  the  leaching  of  ashes  may  be  taken 
by  a  child  accidentally.     The  antidote  is  vinegar,  or  oil  of  any  kind.     The 
vinegar  neutralizes  the  alkali  by  uniting  with  it,  forming  the  acetate  of 
potash.     The  oil  unites  with   the   alkali,  and  forms  soap,  which  is  less 
caustic  than  the  ley.    Give,  at  the  same  time,  large  draughts  of  muci- 
laginous drinks,  as  flaxseed  tea,  &c. 


VEGETABLE  POISONS. 

552.  The  vegetable  poisons  are  quite  as  numerous,  and  many  of  them 
equally  as  violent,  as  any  in  the  mineral  kingdom.    We  shall  describe  the 
most  common,  and  which,  therefore,  are  most  liable  to  be  taken. 

553.  OPIUJC.  —  This  is  the  article  most  frequently  resorted  to  by  those 
wishing  to  commit  suicide,  and,  being  used  as  a  common  medicine,  is 
easily  obtained.     From  this  cause,  also,  mistakes  are  very  liable  to  be 
made,  and  accidents  result  from  it.     Two  of  its  preparations,  laudanum 
and  paregoric,  are  frequently  mistaken  for  each  other ;  the  former  being 
given  when  the  latter  is  intended. 

554.  Morphia,  in  solution,  or  morphine,  as  it  is  more  commonly  called 
by  the   public,  is  a  preparation  of  the   drug  under   consideration,  with 
which  many  cases  of  poisoning  are  produced.     It  is  the  active  narcotic 
principle  of  the  opium ;  and  one  grain  is  equal  to  six  of  this  drug  in  its 
usual  form. 

555.  When  an  over-dose  of  opium,  or  any  of  its  preparations,  has  been 

549.  What  is  the  antidote  for  an  over-dose  of  oxalic  acid  ?  When  magnesia  can 
not  be  obtained,  what  will  answer  as  a  substitute  ?  551.  What  is  the  antidote 
when  ley  is  swallowed  ?  552.  Are  vegetable  poisons  as  numerous  and  as  violen 
.n  their  effects  as  mineral .'  553.  What  is  said  of  opium  and  its  preparations  ' 
555,  556.  What  treatment  should  be  adopted  when  an  over-dose  of  opium  or  any 
of  iis  preparations  is  taken  ? 

15* 


174  APPENDIX. 

swallowed,  the  stomach  should  be  evacuated  as  speedily  as  possible.  To 
effect  this,  a  teaspoonful  of  ground  mustard  seed,  or  as  much  tartar  emetic 
as  can  be  held  on  a  five  cent  piece,  or  as  much  ipecacuanha  as  can  be  held 
on  a  twenty-five  cent  piece,  should  be  dissolved  in  a  tumbler  of  warm 
water,  and  one  half  given  at  once,  and  the  remainder  in  twenty  minutes, 
if  the  first  has  not,  in  the  mean  time,  operated.  In  the  interval,  copious 
draughts  of  warm  water,  or  warm  sugar  and  water,  should  be  drank. 

556.  The  use  of  the  stomach-pump,  in  these  cases,  is  of  the  greatest 
importance,  and  should  be  resorted  to  without  delay.     After  most  of  thu 
poison  has  been  evacuated  from  the  stomach,  a  strong  infusion  of  coffee 
ought  to  be  given ;    or  some  one  of  the  vegetable  acids,  such  as  vinegar 
or  lemon-juice,  should  be  administered. 

557.  The  patient  should  be  kept    in   motion,  and  salutary  etfects  will 
often  be  produced  by  dashing  a  bucket  of  cold  water  on  the  head.     Artifi- 
cial respiration  ought  to  be  established,  and  kept  up  for  some  time.     If 
the  extremities  are  cold,  apply  warmth  and  friction  to  them.     After  the 
poison  has  been  evacuated  from  the  stomach,  stimulants,  as  warm  wine 
and  water,  or  warm  brandy  and  water,  ought  to  be  given,  to  keep  up  and 
sustain  vital  action. 


558.  STRAMONIUM — Thorn-Apple.      This    is    one  of   the  most  active 
narcotic  poisons,  and  when  taken  in   over-doses,  has,  in   numerous  in- 
stances, caused  death. 

559.  HYOSCIAMUS  —  Henbane.     This  article,  which  is  used  as  a  medi- 
cine, if  taken  in  improper   doses,  acts  as  a  virulent  irritating  and  nar- 
cotic poison. 

560.  The  treatment  for  the  two  above-mentioned  articles  is  similar  '  > 
that  of  poisoning  from  over-doses  of  opium. 


561.  CONIUM  —  Hemlock.  Hemlock,  improperly  called,  by  many,  cicuta, 
when  taken  in  an  over-dose,  acts  as  a  narcotic  poison.  It  was  by  this 
narcotic  that  the  Athenians  used  to  destroy  the  lives  of  individuals 
condemned  to  death  by  their  laws.  Socrates  is  said  to  have  been  put 
to  death  by  this  poison.  When  swallowed  in  over-doses,  the  treatment 
is  similar  to  that  of  opium,  stramonium,  and  henbane,  when  over-doses 
are  taken. 


557.  Should  the  person  be  kept  in  motion?  What  is  said  of  artificial  respira- 
tion, warmth,  friction,  and  stimulants?  560.  What  should  be  the  treatment  when 
an  over-dose  of  stramonium  or  henbane  is  taken?  561.  What  name  is  some- 
times improperly  given  to  conium,  or  hemlock?  How  was  this  narcotic  poison  used 
fiv  the  Athenians?  How  are  the  effects  of  an  over-dose  counteracted  ? 


APPENDIX.  175 

562.  BELLADONNA  —  Deadly     Nightshade.       CAMPHOR.      ACONITE  - 
Monkshood,     Wolfsbane.       BRYONY  —  Bryonia.        DIGITALIS  —  Foxglove 
DL-LCAMARA  —  Bitter-sweet.      GAMBOGE.       LOBELIA  —  Indian    Tobacco. 
SAXGVINAB.IA  —  Bloodroot.       OIL    OP    SAVIN.       SPIGELIA  —  Piakroot. 
STUYCJINIXE  —  Nux   vomica.     TOBACCO.     All  of  these,   when   taken   in 
over-doses,  are    poisons   of  greater   or   less   activity.     The  treatment  of 
poisoning,  by  the  use  of  any  of  these  articles,  is  similar  to  that  pursued 
in  over-doses  of  opium.     (See  Opium,  page  173.) 

563.  In  all  cases  of  poisoning,  call  a  physician  as  soon  as  possible. 


MEANS    OF   DISTINGUISHING    DEATH    FllOM 
ASPHYXIA. 

564.  It  is  no  uncommon  occurrence,  that  persons  considered  dead,  havp 
been  restored  to  life  at  the  moment  when  a  post  mortem  examination  was 
to  have  been  made,  or  even  when  they  were  in  the  coffin  or  tomb.     This 
mistake   arises  from  the  difficulty  of  distinguishing  real  from  apparent 
death. 

565.  In   death,   although   the  limbs  are  stiff,   their  position  is  easily 
changed,  but  they  remain  where  last  placed.     When  a  limb  is  stiff  from 
convulsions  or  asphyxia,  its  position  is  changed  with  difficulty,  and  it  im 
mediately   returns   to   its   former   state.     Cessation   of  breathing,  or   the 
"  beating  "  of  the  heart,  coldness,  or  insensibility,  are  no  certain  indica- 
tions of  death.     The  sign  most  certain,  is  well-marked  putrefaction  ;  but  it 
does  not  belong  to  the  unprofessional  to  decide  whether  putrefaction  has 
commenced ;  the  physician  alone  can  establish  the  fact. 

5Ti2.  What  is  the  treatment  when  an  over-dose  of  deadly  nightshade,  monks»- 
h(H>d,  foxglove,  hitter-sweet,  gamboge,  lobelia,  bloodroot,  tobacco,  &.C.,  is  taken? 
503.  Should  a  physician  be  called  in  all  cases  when  poison  i3  swallowed ?  565.  Ho* 
ca\  Jt-ath  be  distinguished  from  aspnyxia.' 


to* 


GLOSSARY. 


\B  SORP'TIOIC.  From  the  Latin  ab- 
sorbere,  to  suck  up. 

A-CE-TAB'U-LUM.  From  the  Latin  ace- 
tum,  vinegar.  The  cavity  in  the  hip- 
bone, so  called  from  its  resemblance  to 
the  ancient  Greek  vinegar  vessel. 

A-NAT  0-MY.  From  the  Greek  ana, 
through,  and  tcmnd,  I  cut.  A  descrip- 
tion of  the  structure  of  animals. 

A-ORT'A.  From  the  Greek  aorte,  to  keep 
in  air.  The  large  vessel  that  carries 
blood  from  the  heart. 

AP-PA-RA'TUS.  From  the  Latin  ad,  for, 
and  parare,  to  prepare.  A  collection  of 
organs. 

AP-PEND'IX.  From  the  Latin  ad,  to, 
and  pendere,  to  hang.  Something 
added. 

A'QUE-ous.  From  the  Latin  aqua,  water. 
A  numor  of  the  eye. 

AR'TE-RY.  From  the  Greek  arteria, 
formed  from  a#r,  air,  and  tercin,  to 
keep.  The  ancients  believed  that  the 
arteries  were  filled  with  air,  like  the 
wind-pipe. 

AS-PHYX'I-A.  From  the  Greek  a,  priva- 
tive, and  sphuxis,  pulse.  Suspended 
animation. 

AT'MOS-PHERE.  From  the  Greek  atmos, 
vapor,  and  sphaira,  a  sphere.  The  air 
which  surrounds  the  eaith. 

\UD'IT-O-RY  Belonging  to  the  sense 
tf  nearing. 


AU'RI-CLE.  From  the  Latin  aunt,  an 
ear.  The  two  cavities  of  the  heart 
derive  the  name  from  their  resemblance 
to  ears. 

Bl-CUS'PlDS.  From  the  Latin  bis,  two, 
and  citspis,  a  point.  The  name  of  cer- 
tain teeth. 

BILE.  A  yellow,  bitler,  nauseous  fluid, 
secreted  by  the  liver. 

BRAIN.  The  pulpy  mass  enclosed  in 
the  cranium,  or  skull-bones. 

BRONCH'I-A.  From  the  Greek  brogchos, 
the  throat.  The  two  branches  of  the 
wind-pipe. 

CAP'IL-LA-RY.  From  the  Latin  capillus, 
hair.  The  capillary  vessels  are  the  ex- 
tremely minute  terminations  of  the  ar- 
teries, and  commencing  branches  of  the 
veins. 

CAR'BON.  From  the  Latin  carbo,  a  coal 
An  elementary  combustible  substance. 

CAR-BON'IC.     Containing  carbon. 

CAR'PUS.  From  the  Greek  karpos,  the 
wrist.  There  are  eight  bones  in  the 
wrist. 

CAR'TI-LAGE.  Gristle  ;  a  part  of  the 
animal  body,  softer  than  bone,  l>ut 
harder  than  ligament. 

CA'VA.  Latin.  Hollow.  Vena  Cora,  the 
hollow,  or  deep-seated  vein. 

CER-E-BEL'LUM.  The  lower  and  small 
er  portion  of  the  brain. 


GLOSSARY. 


177 


rER'E-BRUM.  The  upper  and  larger 
portion  of  the  brain. 

CHEST.  The  part  of  the  body  between 
the  neck  and  the  belly. 

CHO'ROID.  From  the  Greek  ehorion,  the 
skin,  and  eidus,  resemblance.  A  coat 
of  the  eye. 

CHYLE.  From  the  Greek  chulos,  nutri- 
tious juice. 

CHYME.  From  the  Greek  chumos,  a 
grayish  juice. 

Cn  'IA-RY.  Latin.  Relating  to  the  eye- 
lid. 

CLAV'I-CLE.  From  the  Latin  davis,  a 
key.  The  collar-bone. 

Coc'CYX.  Latin.  The  lower  extremity 
of  the  spinal  column. 

Cocil'LE-A.  Latin.  A  snail-shell.  A 
name  given  to  one  of  the  three  cavities 
of  the  internal  ear. 

CO'LOX.  Greek.  A  portion  of  the  large 
intestine. 

CON'CAVE.  Hollow  ;  as  the  inner  sur- 
face of  a  spherical  body. 

CON'VEX.  Bulging  ;  as  the  external  sur- 
face of  a  spherical  body. 

CORN'E-A.  From  the  Latin  cornu,  a 
horn.  One  of  the  coats  of  the  eye. 

ORYS'TAL-LINE.  A  humor,  or  lens  of 
the  eye.  It  serves  to  transmit  and  re- 
fract the  rays  of  light. 

Cus'PID.  From  the  Latin  cuspis,  a  point 
The  name  of  certain  teeth. 

Cu'Tl-CLE.  The  external  layer  of  the 
skin. 

CU'TIS  VE'RA.  Latin.  The  true  skin. 
The  internal  layer  of  the  skin. 

DI'A-PHRAGM.  From  the  Greek  dia- 
phragma,  a  partition.  The  muscle  that 
separates  the  lungs  and  heart  from  the 
stomach,  liver,  and  intestines. 

DI-GES'TION.  The  process  of  dissolving 
food  in  the  stomach,  and  preparing  it 
for  circulation  and  nourishment. 

DU-O-DE'NUM.     The  first  of  the  small 


intestine,  being  about   twelve   fingers' 
breadth. 

EN- AM 'EL.  The  smooth,  hard  substance 
which  covers  the  crowns  of  the  teeth. 

EP-I-GLOT'TJS.  From  the  Greek  epi, 
upon,  and  glottis,  the  glottis.  A  kind 
of  cartilaginous  valve  at  the  upper 
part  of  the  larynx,  behind  the  base  of 
the  tongue. 

EU-STA'CHI  AN  TUBE.    So  called  from 

its  discoverer,  Eustachiua.    A  tube  that 

connects    the    middle    ear   with    the 

throat. 
EX-HA'LENT.    From  the  Latin  exholore, 

to  throw  out. 
EX-TREM'I-TIES.      The  limbs ;    as  the 

legs  and  arms. 
FAS'CI-A.   Latin.    A  thin  membrane  that 

surrounds  the  muscles  and  tendons. 
FE'MUR.    Latin,    The  thigh-bone. 
FI'BRE.    An  organic  filament,  or  thread, 

of  a  solid    consistence,  which   enters 

into  the  composition  of  every  animal 

and  vegetable  texture. 
FIB'U-LA.    Latin.    A  clasp.    The  outei 

and  lesser  bone  of  the  leg. 
FlI/A-MENT.     From  the  Latin  Jilum,  a 

thread.     A  small  fibre. 
FOI/LI-CLE.    From  the  Latin  follis,  a 

bag.    Very  minute  secreting   avities. 
FORE-ARM.    That  part  of  the  t  rm  be- 
tween the  elbow  and  wrist. 
FUNC'TION.     From  the  Latin  fvngor^  I 

act,  I  perform.    The  action  of  organs  ; 

as  the  function  or  action  of  the  eye  is  to 

see,  the  ear  to  hear. 
GAN'GLI-ON.    From  the  Greek  gaggbon, 

a  knot    An  enlargement  upon  a  nerve 

or  tendon. 
GUST'A-TO-RY.    From  the  Latin  gustus, 

the  taste.    Belonging  to  the  sense  of 

taste. 

GAS'TRIC  JUICE.  From  the  Greek  gut- 
ter, the  stomach.  The  fluid  secreted  bp 

the  stomach. 


178 


GLOSSARY. 


GLOT'TIS.    A  small,  oblong  opening  at 

the  upper  part  of  the  larynx. 
GLANDS.    From  the  Latin  glans,  a  nut. 

Soft,  fleshy  organs,  of  various  sizes. 
HEART.    A  muscular  organ,  situated  in 

the  left  side  of  the  chest. 
IIu'MER-us.    The  bone  of  the  arm,  sit- 

uated   between  the  shoulder-joint  and 

elbow. 
HU'MOR.    Every  fluid   substance  of  an 

organi/.edbody  ;  as  the  chyle,  the  blood. 
HY'DRO-GEN.    From  the  Greek  hydro, 

water,  and   geinomai,   I  engender.     A 

gas  which   constitutes  one  of  the   ele- 

ments of  water. 
HY-GI-ENE'.    The  science  of  preserving 

the  health 
IN-CI'SOR.     From  the  Latin  incido,  I  cut. 

The  fore-teeth. 


Latin.    The  alimentary 

canal. 
I'Ris.    Latin.    The  rainbow.    The  col- 

ored  membrane  around    the   pupil   of 

the  eye. 
LAB'Y-RINTH.     From  the  Greek  laburin- 

thos,  a  place  full  of  turnings.     A  name 

given  to  the  windings  of  the  internal 

ear. 
LACH'RY-MAL.    From  the  Latin  lachry- 

ma,  a  tear. 
LAC'TE-AL.    From  the  Latin  lac,  milk. 

The  vessels  that  convey  the  chyle,  or  a 

milk-like  substance,  into  the  veins. 

LAR'YNX.     From  the  Greek  larugx,  a 

whistle.    The  upper  part  of  the  wind- 

pipe. 
LIG-A-MENT.     From    ligo,  I  bind.     A 

strong,  fibrous  substance,  which  binds 

bones,  &c.,  together. 
LJV'ER.    A  large  gland  situated  below 

the  right  lung. 
LYM-PHAT'ICS.      Vessels  that  perform 

the  office  of  absorption. 

ME-DUL-'LA.    From  the   Latin  medulla, 
marrow. 


ME-DUL'LA  OB-LON-GA'TA.  The  SDI- 
nal  cord  that  is  situated  within  the 
skull-bones. 

MEM'BRANE.  From  the  Latin  mcmbra- 
na,  a  film,  a  delicate  web.  A  name 
given  to  different  thin  organs. 

MES'EN-TER-Y.  From  the  Greek  mesos, 
in  the  middle,  and  enteron,  an  intestine. 
A  membrane  in  the  middle  of  the  intes- 
tines, by  which  they  are  attached  to  the 
spinal  column. 

MET-A-CAK'PUS.  From  the  Greek  meta, 
after,  and  karpos,  the  wrist.  That  part 
of  the  hand  between  the  wrist  and  fin- 
gers. 

MET-A-TAR'SUS.  From  the  Greek  meta, 
after,  and  tamos,  the  instep.  That  part 
of  the  foot  between  the  instep  and  toes 

MID'RIFF.    The  diaphragm. 

MI'TRAL.  Resembling  a  mitre,  or  bishop's 
bonnet.  The  name  of  two  valves  of 
the  heart. 

Mo'LAR.  From  the  Latin  molo,  I  grind. 
The  name  of  certain  teeth. 

Mu'cus.  A  viscid  fluid  secreted  by  the 
mucous  membrane,  which  it  serves  to 
moisten,  and  also  to  defend. 

MUS'CLE.  A  bundle  of  fibres  enclosed  in 
a  sheath. 

NERVE.  An  organ  of  sensation  and 
motion  in  animals. 

Nl'TRO-GEN.  From  the  Greek  nitron, 
nitre,  and  gcimad,  I  beget.  One  of  the 
gases  that  compose  atmospheric  air. 

NU-TRI'TION.  The  act  or  process  of  pro- 
moting the  growth,  or  repairing  the 
waste  of  the  system. 

CE-SOPii'A-GUS.  From  the  Greek  old, 
I  carry,  and  phago,  1  eat.  The  tube 
that  leads  from  the  mouth  to  tha 
stomach. 

OL-FACT'O-RY.  From  the  Latin  olfac- 
tus.  Belonging  to  the  sense  of  smell. 

O-MEN'TUM.  Latin.  The  caul,  so  called 
because  the  ancient  priests  prophesied 
from  an  inspection  of  this  membrane 


GLOSSARY. 


r/y 


OR'GAN.  From  the  Greek  organon,  an 
instrument.  A  part  of  the  system  des- 
tined to  exercise  some  particular  func- 
tion. 

Ox  V-GEX.  From  the  Greek  OJTU.I,  acid, 
and  ffeinomai,  I  engender.  A  gas  which 
constitutes  about  one  fifth  of  our  atmos- 
phere. 

PAN'CRE-AS.  From  the  Greek  pan,  all, 
and  trow,  flesh ;  that  is,  quite  fleshy. 
A  gland  situated  behind  the  stomach. 

PA-PlL'LA.  From  the  Latin  papilla,  nip- 
ple. Small,  conical  prominences  seen 
on  the  tongue  and  skin. 

PA-ROT'ID.  From  the  Greek  para,  about, 
and  o«x,  tlie  ear.  A  gland  situated  un- 
der the  ear. 

PA-TEL'LA.  From  the  Latin  patina,  a 
dish.  The  knee-pan. 

PEL'VIS.  Latin.  A  basin.  The  name 
of  a  bony  structure  at  the  lower  part 
of  the  trunk. 

PER-I-OS'TE-UM.  From  peri,  about,  and 
os,  bone.  The  membrane,  or  skin  that 
surrounds  the  bones. 

PER-SPI-RA'TIOX.  The  evacuation  of 
the  fluids  of  the  body  through  the  pores 
of  the  skin. 

PHA-LAN'GES.  From  the  Greek  pha- 
larri,  a  file  of  soldiers.  The  bonea 
composing  the  fingers  and  toes. 

PIIAR'VNX.  From  the  Greek  pkarugx, 
the  pharynx.  The  swallow. 

PHYS-I-OL/O-GY.  From  the  Greek  phu- 
M.-,  nature,  and  logos,  a  discourse.  The 
science  which  treats  of  the  functions 
of  animals  and  vegetables. 

PLEU'RA.  Greek.  The  membrane  that 
lines  the  chest  and  surrounds  the  lungs. 

Pri/MO-NA-RY.     Belonging  to  the  lungs. 

PLEX'US.-  Latin.  Any  union  of  nerves 
or  fibres,  in  the  form  of  net-work. 

RA'DI-CS.  Latin.  A  spoke.  The  small 
bone  of  the  fore-arm. 

REC'TUM.  The  .ower  and  straight  por- 
tiru  of  the  intestines. 


RE-SI D'u-UM.  Residue.  The  waste  re 
mains  of  the  food. 

RET'I-NA.  From  the  Latin  rete,  a  nc-u 
The  net-like  expansion  of  the  optic 
nerve  on  the  inner  surface  of  the 
eye. 

SA'CRUM.  A  bone  so  called  because  it 
was  offered  iu  sacrifice.  The  lower 
portion  of  the  spinal  column. 

SA-LI'VA.  Latin.  The  fluid  secreted  in 
the  mouth. 

SCAP'U-LA.    Latin.    The  shoulder-blade, 

SCLE-ROT'IC.  From  the  Greek  akleroo, 
I  harden.  A  membrane  of  the  eye. 

SE-CRE'TION.  From  the  Latin  seccrnere, 
to  separate.  The  function  of  several 
glands,  by  which  they  separate  from 
the  blood  the  material  which  they  re- 
spectively demand  for  their  several  pur- 


SEM-1-I.u'NAR.  From  the  Latin  send. 
half,  and  lu.na,  moon.  The  name  of 
two  valves  at  the  commencement  of 
the  aorta  and  pulmonary  artery. 

SKEL'E-TON.  From  the  Greek  skdld, 
I  dry.  The  articulated,  dry  bones  of 
an  animal. 

SPI'NAL  CORD.  A  prolongation  of  the 
brain. 

SPINE.  From  the  J>a»in  spina,  a  thorn 
The  back-bone. 

SPLEEN.  The  milt.  It  was  supposed 
by  the  ancients  to  be  the  seat  of  mel- 
ancholy, anger,  and  vexation. 

STER'NUM.    Greek.    The  breast-bone. 

STOM'ACH.  The  principal  organ  of  di- 
gestion, situated  below  the  left  lung. 

SUB-LIN'GUAL.  From  the  Latin  sub, 
under,  and  lingua,  the  tongue.  The 
name  applied  to  the  gland  under  the 
tongue. 

SUB-MAX'IL-LA-KY.  From  the  Latin 
sub,  under,  and  maxilla,  the  jaw-bone 
The  name  applied  to  the  gland  undei 
the  jaw. 

SUT'URE.    From  the  Latin  suo,  I  stitch 


180 


GLOSSARY. 


The  seam  or  joint  which  unites  the 
skull-bones. 

BYN-O'VI-A.  From  the  Greek  swn,  with, 
and  oon,  an  egg.  The  lubricating  fluid 
of  the  joints. 

SYS'TEM.  From  the  Greek  sun,  to- 
gether, and  istemi,  I  place.  An  assem- 
blage of  organs,  arranged  according  to 
some  plan  or  method ;  as  the  nervous 
system. 

SYS-TEM'JC.  Belonging  to  the  general 
system. 

TEN'DON.  From  the  Greek  tein6,  I 
stretch.  Strong,  white  cords,  that  con- 
nect the  muscles  to  the  bone  which 
they  move. 

THO-RAC'IC.  From  the  Greek  tii&raz, 
the  chest. 

TIB'I-A.  Latin.  A  pipe  or  flute.  The 
largest  bone  of  the  leg. 

TRA'CHE-A.  From  the  Greek  trachus, 
rough,  and  arteria.  The  canal  that 
conveys  air  to  the  lungs. 

TRI-CUS'PID.  From  the  Latin  trea,  three, 
and  cuspis,  a  point.  The  three  valves 
in  the  light  side  of  the  heart. 


TRUNK.  The  body  of  animals,  without 
the  limbs. 

TYM'PAN-UM.  Latin.  The  drum  of  the 
ear. 

UL'NA.  Latin.  A  cubit.  A  bone  of 
the  fore-arm. 

VALVE.  From  the  Latin  valva,  a 
small  door.  Any  membrane,  or  dou- 
bling of  any  membrane,  which  pre- 
vents fluid  from  flowing  back  in  the 
vessels  and  canals  of  the  animal  body 

VEINS.  From  the  Latin  vena.  The 
vessels  that  carry  the  blood  to  the 
heart. 

VEN'TRI-CLE.  Latin.  A  small  cavity 
of  the  animal  body. 

VERT'E-BRA,  -JE.  From  the  Latin  ver- 
to,  I  turn.  A  joint  of  the  spinal 
column. 

VES'I-CLE.  From  the  Latin  vesicula,  a 
small  vessel,  or  bladder. 

Vl'TAL.     From  the  Latin  vita,  life. 

VIT'RE-OUS.  Pertaining  to  glass.  A 
name  given  to  one  of  the  humora  >( 
the  eve 


INDEX. 


A.  PAGE. 

ABSORPTION, .  76 

ACIDS,  Antidote*  for, 172 

AIR,  Composition  of  the, 96 

,  the  Effects  of,  when  impure,. 99 

,  the  Effects  of,  upon  the  Skin,...  125 

AIR-CELLS, 90 

AMMONIA,  Antidotes  for, 170 

AORTA, 65 

ARSENIC,  Antidote  for, 171 

ARTERIES, 63 

,  Nutrient, 87 

,  Pulmonary, 64 

of  the  Skin, 117 

,  Treatment  of  divided, 72 

ASPHYXIA,  from  Carbonic  Gas, 105 

,  from  Electricity, 105 

,  from  Drowning, 104 

,  from  Hanging, 104 

ATTITUDES, 25 

AURICLES  of  the  Heart, 62 


BATHING,  Necessity  of,  .............  125 

-  ,  Method  of,.  ..............  164 

BELLADONNA,  Antidote  for,  .........  175 

RILE,  ...............  .-  ...............  52 

BLOOD,  Composition  of,  ..............  86 

-  ,  Circulation  of,  ...............  67 

--  ,  Change  of,  ..................  97 

BONES,  Structure  of,  .................  11 

-  ,  Physiology  of,  ...............  21 

-  .Hygiene  of,  ...............  24,26 

-  of  the  Head,  .................  11 

-  of  the  Trunk,  ................  12 

--  of  the  Upper  Extremities,  .....  16 

-  of  the  Lower  Extremities,.  ----  17 
BRAIN,  .............................  127 

-  ,  Membranes  of,  ..............  128 

-  ,  Functions  of,  ...............  134 

-  ,  Injuries  of,  .................  137 

BRONCHIA,  .........................  90 

BRONCHITIS,  ...................  90,  112 

BURNS  and  SCALDS,  Treatment  of,.  .126 


CAPILLARIES,  ......................  66 

CARBONIC  GAS,  ................  95,  107 

the  Effects  of,  when 


breathed, 
CARTILAGE, 
CEREBELLUM, 
CEREBRUM, 
CHEST, 
CHYLE 


19 

12€ 


13,  101 
54 


CHYME, 64 

CIRCULATORY  ORGANS, 62 

,  Physiology  of, 67 

,  Hygiene  of,  ....70—75 

CLOTHING,  Amount  of, 123 

,  Change  of, 124 

,  Kind  of, 122 

should  be  loosely  worn, 

24,  70,  123 

CONIUM,  Antidote  for, 174 

COPPER,  Antidote  for, 171 

CUTICLE, 115,  119 

CUTIS  VERA, 117 

D. 

DIAPHRAGM, 91 

DIGESTIVE  ORGANS, 48 

-,  Physiology  of,.. 53 
.,  Hygiene  of,  56— 61 


DRINKS, 59 

DROWNED,  Treatment  of  Persons,.. 104 
DUODENUM, 50 

E. 

EAR,  Anatomy  of, 152 

,  Physiology  of, 155 

,  Hygiene  of, 157 

EXH  A  LE  NTS, 82 

EYE,  Anatomy  of, 143 

,  Physiology  of, 149 

,  Hygiene  of, 150 

,  Method  of  removing  Dust  from,  151 

F. 

FASCIA, 29 

FIBRES, 27 

FOLLICLE, 82 

FOOD,  Changes  of,  during  the  Diges- 
tive Process, 54 

,  Quantity  of, 56 

,  duality  of, 57 

,  Manner  of  taking, 58 

,  Time  for  taking, 60 

FROZEN  LIMBS,  Treatment  of, 126 


GASTRIC  JUICE, M 

GLANDS,  Structure  of, 83 

Lachrymal, 147 

Lymphatic, 78 

Mesenteric, 51 

Oil, 118,120 

Perspiratory, 118,  120 

Salivary,   48 

GLOTTIS, 110 


IS2 


II-  PAGE. 

HEALTH,  Means  of  preserving, 158 

HEARING,  Sense  of, 152 

HEART, ti-2 

,  Contractions  of  the (57,  d9 

HEAT,  Animal, 10G 

,  Hygiene  of, 108,  109 

HEMORRHAGE,  Means  of  arresting,..  .7 


INTESTINES,.  . 50 


JOINTS,  Structure  of, 19 

,  Use  of, 21 

L, 

LACTE  ALS, 51 

LARYNX, 110 

LEAD,  Antidote  for, 171 

LIGAMENTS, 20 

LIGHT,  Influence  of, 37,  126 

LIVER, 52 

LUNGS, 89 

LYMPHATICS, 76 

,  Physiology  of, 78 

,  Hygiene  of, 79—81 

,  of  the  Skin, 117 

M. 

MEDULLA  OBLONGATA, 129 

MEMBRANE, 21 

MERCURY,  Antidote  for, 173 

MINERAL  POISONS, 170 

MUSCLES,  Anatomy  of, 27 

,  Physiology  of, 30 

,  Hygiene  of, 36—42 

,  Compression  of, 38,  113 

N. 

NERVOUS  SYSTEM, - 127 

,  Physiology  of,  . .  131 

,  Hygiene  of,134— 137 

NERVES, 130 

,  Sympathetic, 130 

,  of  the  Skin 117,  119 

,  Gu.-tatorv, 139 

,  Olfactory, 141 

,  Auditory, ; 154 

,  Optic, 146 

NITUE,  Treatment  for  an  Over-dose..  172 
NURSES,  Directions  for, 164 

O. 

OESOPHAGUS, 49 

OMENTUM, 52 

OPIUM,  Treatment  for  an  Over-dose,..  173 


PANCREAS, .52 

PERIOSTEUM,  21 

PHARYNX, 48 

POISONS  and  their  Antidotes, 170 


It.  PACh 

READING,  the  proper  Pos  tion  in, 113 

REMOVAL  OF  DISEASE, 159 

RESPIRATORY  ORGANS, 89 

,  Physiology  of, 193 

,  Hygiene  of, 98— lO- 


RETINA, 4} 

RIBS, 10 

8. 

SALIVA, 53 

SECRETORY  ORGANS, 83 

— — ,  Physiology  of.    83 

,  Hygiene  of,  84,  85 

SENSES, i  ;{8 

SKIN,  Anatomy  of, 115 

,  Physiology  of, 1 19 

,  Hygiene  of, 122,  1-26 

SMELL,  Sense  of, 141 

SOUND, Ill,  155 

SPINAL  COLUMN, 14 

— -,  Curvature  of, 26 

CORD, 129 

SPLEEN, 52 


STRAMONIUM,    Treatment    for    an 

Over-dose, 174 

STOMACH, 49 

SYNOVIA, 21 

S VNOVIAL  MEMBRANE, 20 


TASTE,  Sense  of, 139 

TEETH,  Anatomy  of, 43 

,  Physiology  of, 44 

,  Hygiene  of, 45,  46 

TENDON, 27 

THORACIC  DUCT, 52 

THROAT,  extraneous  Bodies  in, 114 

TOUCH,  Sense  o;, 138 

TRACHEA, 90 


U. 

ULNA, 16 

V. 

VALVES  of  the  Heart, 62 

of  the  Aorta, 63 

of  the  Pulmonary  Artery, 63 

VEINS, 66 

of  the  Skin, 117 

VEGETABLE  POISONS, 173 

VENTILATION, 100 

VENTRICLES  of  the  Heart. 62 

VERTEBRA;, 14 

VISION, 143 

VOCAL  ORGANS, 110 

,  Physiology  of, Ill 

,  Hygiene  of,  ...112,  111 


W. 

WATCHERS,  Directions  for, 16? 

WOUNDS,  Treatment  of, .74 


KEY   TO   ANATOMICAL    OUTLINE    PLATES. 


KEY  TO  ANATOMICAL  OUTLINE  PLATES.    - 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS. 

IN  using  these  plates,  we  would  suggest,  that  the  pupil  carefully  examine 
the  illustrating  cuts  interspersed  with  the  text,  in  connection  with  the 
lesson  to  be  recited.  The  similarity  between  these  and  the  plates  will 
enable  the  pupil  to  recite,  and  the  teacher  to  conduct  his  recitation,  from 
the  latter. 

Let  a  pupil  show  the  situation  of  an  organ,  or  part,  on  an  anatomical 
outline  plate,  and  also  give  its  structure ;  while  other  members  of  the  class 
note  all  omissions  and  misstatements.  Another  pupil  may  give  the  use  of 
that  organ,  and  if  necessary,  others  may  give  an  extended  explanation. 
The  third  may  explain  the  laws  on  which  the  health  of  the  part  depends, 
while  other  members  of  the  class  supply  what  has  been  omitted.  After 
thus  presenting  the  subject  in  the  form  of  topics,  questions  may  be  pro- 
posed promiscuously,  from  each  paragraph,  and  where  examples  occur  in 
the  text,  let  other  analogous  ones  be  given. 

If  the  physiology  and  hygiene  of  a  given  subject  have  not  been  studied, 
confine  the  recitation  to  those  parts  only  on  which  the  pupil  is  prepared. 
When  practicable,  the  three  departments  should  be  united ;  but  this  can 
only  be  done  when  the  chapter  on  the  hygiene  has  been  learned,  while 
the  physiology  can  be  united  with  the  anatomy,  in  all  chapters  upon 
physiology. 

PLATE   I. 

A  FRONT  VIEW  OF  THE  SKELETON. 

Bones  of  the  Head.  7,  The  sphenoid  bone.  8,  The  frontal  bone.  10,  The 
parietal  bone.  11,  The  os  unguis.  12,  The  superior  maxillary  bone, 
(upper  jaw.)  13,  The  nasal  bone.  14,  The  ethmoid  bone.  15,  The  malar 
bone,  (check-bone.)  16,  The  vomer.  17,  The  inferior  maxillary  bone, 
(the  lower  jaw.)  a,  Its  body.  6,  Its  ramus,  or  branch.  18,  The  teeth 

Bones  of  the  Trunk.  1,1,  The  spinal  column.  2,  The  sternum  3,3,  The 
ribs.  4,  The  sacrum.  5,  The  innominatum. 

Bones  of  the  Upper  Extremities.     19,  The  clavicle,  (collar-bone.)    20,  The 


184  KEY    TO    ANATOMICAL    OUTLINE    PLATES. 

scapula,   (shoulder-blade.)     21,  The  humerus.     22,  The  ulna.      23,  The 
radius.    24,  2-5,  26,  27,  28,  29,  30,  31,  The  bones  of  the  carpus,  (wrist.) 

32,  32,  32,    The  five  bones  of  the  metacatpus,  (the  palm  of  the  hand.) 

33,  33,  33,  The  first  range  of  finger-bones.     34,  34,  The  second  range  of 
finger-bones.    35,  35,  35,  The  third  range  of  finger-bones. 

Bones  of  the  Lower  Extremities.  36,  The  femur,  (thigh-bone.)  37,  The 
patella,  (knee-pan.)  38,  The  tibia,  (shin-bone.)  39,  The  fibula.  40,  40, 
40,  The  bones  of  the  tarsus,  (instep.)  41,  41,  The  bones  of  the  metatarsus, 
(middle  of  the  foot.)  42,  42,  The  bones  of  the  toes. 

ARTICULATIONS.    (Left  side  of  the  plate.) 

Ligaments  of  the  Trunk.  1,  1,  The  common  spinal  ligament.  2,  2,  The 
intervertebral  ligament,  (cartilage  between  the  vertebrae.)  9,  10, 11, 12,  Ar- 
ticulations of  the  ribs  with  the  spinal  column.  13,  13,  14,  15,  16,  Liga 
ments  that  connect  the  cartilages  of  the  ribs  with  the  sternum. 

Ligaments  of  the  Upper  Extremities.  25,  The  ligament  that  connects 
the  clavicle  and  sternum.  27,  The  ligament  that  connects  the  upper  rib 
and  clavicle.  28,  29,  30,  Ligaments  that  connect  the  clavicle  and  scapula 
31,  32,-  33,  34,  Ligaments  of  the  shoulder-joint.  35,  35,  36,  Ligaments  of 
the  elbow-joint.  37,  38,  39,  40,  Ligaments  of  the  wrist.  41,  42,  43,  44, 
Ligaments  of  the  fingers. 

Ligaments  of  the  Lower  Extremities.  49,  49,  Ligaments  of  the  hip-joint. 
50,  50,  Ligaments  of  the  patella.  51,  52,  53,  54,  55,  Ligaments  of  the 
knee-joint.  56,  A  large  bursa  mucosa.  57,  The  ligament  of  the  tibia  and 
fibula.  58,  58,  The  interosseous  ligament.  59,  59,  Ligaments  of  the  an- 
kle-joint. 60,  61,  62,  Ligaments  of  the  metatarsus.  63,  64,  Ligaments  of 
the  toes. 

A,  The  brachial  artery.  B,  The  brachial  vein.  C,  The  radial  artery. 
D,  The  femoral  artery.  E,  The  femoral  vein.  F,  G,  The  anterior  tibial 
artery. 

PLATE  H. 

A  BACK  VIEW  OF  THE  SKELETON. 

Bones  of  the  Head.  5,  The  occipital  bone.  6,  The  parietal  bone.  7,  The 
temporal  bone.  8,  The  frontal  bone.  9,  The  sphenoid  bone.  15,  The 
malar  bone.  16,  The  nasal  bone.  17,  The  superior  maxillary  bone,  (upper 
i-aw.)  18,  The  inferior  maxillary  bone,  (lower  jaw.)  19,  The  teeth. 

Bones  of  the  Trunk.  1,1,  The  spinal  column.  2,  The  sacrum.  3,  The 
Coccyx.  20,  The  innominatum.  4,  4,  The  ribs. 

Bones  of  the  Upper  Extremities.  21,  The  clavicle,  (collar-bone.)  22,  The 
icapula,  (shoulder-blade.)  23,  The  humerus.  24.  The  ulna.  25,  The 
adius.  26,  27,  28,  29,  30,  31,  32,  The  bones  of  the  carpus,  (wrist.) 
53,  33,  33,  The  bones  "of  the  metacarpus,  (palm  of  the  hand.)  34,  34,  34, 
The  first  iange  of  finger-bones.  35,  35,  The  second  range  of  finger-bones 
16,  36,  a*,  Th*.  third  rang«  of  finger-bones. 


KEY    TO    JKIATOMICAL    OUTLINE    PLATES.  b  < 

Bones  of  the  Lower  Extremities.  37,  The  femur,  (thigh-bone.)  38,  The 
patella,  (knee-pan.)  39,  The  tibia,  (shin-bone.)  40,  The  fibula.  41,  42, 
43,  44,  45,  The  bones  of  the  tarsus,  (instep.)  46,  46,  The  bones  of  the 
metatarsus,  (middle  of  the  foot.)  47,  47,  Bones  of  the  toes. 

ARTICULATIONS.     (Left  side  of  the  plate.) 

Ligaments  of  the  Trunk.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  Ligaments  of  the 
spinal  column.  14,  14,  15,  15,  Ligaments  that  connect  the  ribs  and  spinal 
column.  11,  11,  21,  22,  23,  24,  25,  26,  Ligaments  that  connect  the  sacrum 
and  innominatum. 

Ligaments  of  the  Upper  Extremities.  27,  28,  Ligaments  that  connect  the 
clavicle  aftd  scapula.  29,  The  capsular  ligament  of  the  shoulder-joint. 
oO,  30,  Ligaments  of  the  elbow.  31,  32,  33,  34,  Ligaments  of  the  carpus, 
(wrist.) 

Ligaments  of  the  Lower  Extremities.  9,  Tendon  of  the  gluteus  muscle. 
35,  The  capsular  ligament  of  the  hip-joint.  36,  36,  Ligaments  of  the  knee- 
joint.  37,  The  ligament  that  connects  the  tibia  and  fibula.  38,  The  in 
terosseous  ligament.  39,  40,  Ligaments  of  the  ankle-joint. 


PLATE  IH. 
A  FRONT  VIEW  OF  THE  MUSCLES. 

Muscles  of  the  Head  and  Neck.  7,  The  sterno-mastoideus  muscle. 
8,  The  sterno-hyoideus  muscle.  9,  The  omo-hyoideus  muscle.  10,  The 
trapezius  muscle.  11,  The  orbicularis  oculi  muscle.  12,  The  frontal 
muscle.  14,  The  orbicularis  oris  muscle.  15,  The  elevator  muscle  of  the 
nostrils.  16,  The  zygomatic  muscle.  17,  The  depressor  of  the  lower  lip. 
18,  The  depressor  anguli  oris  muscle.  19,  The  triangular  muscle  of  the 
nose.  20,  21,  The  aural  muscles.  22,  The  masseter  muscle. 

Muscles  of  the  Trunk.     2,  3,  The  external  oblique  muscles. 

Muscles  of  the  Upper  Extremities.  1,  The  grand  pectoral  muscle. 
3,  4,  The  serratus  muscle.  23,  The  deltoid  muscle.  24,  The  biceps 
brachialis  muscle.  2-5,  The  coraco-brachialis  muscle.  26,  The  anterior 
brachial  muscle.  27,  The  triceps  brachialis  muscle.  28,  The  long  sjj- 
pinator  muscle.  29,  The  external  radial  muscle.  30,  The  pronator  teres 
muscle.  31,  The  anterior  radial  muscle.  32,  The  palmaris  brevis  muscle 
33,  The  anterior  ulnar  muscle.  35,  The  palmar  muscle.  36,  The  abductor 
muscle  of  the  thumb.  37,  The  adductor  muscle  of  the  thumb.  "  38,  39, 
Small  flexor  muscles  of  the  thumb.  40,  The  abductor  muscle  of  the  little 
finger.  41,  41,  The  lumbricales  muscles.  61,61,  The  bifurcation  of  the 
tendons  of  the  superficial  flexor  muscle,  in  the  fingers. 

Muscles  of  the  Lower  Extremities.  42,  The  fascia  lata  muscle.  43,  The 
sartorius  muscle.  44,  The  rectus  femoris  muscle.  45,  The  vastns  oxtcrnus 
nviscle.  46,  The  vastus  internus  muscle.  47,  The  internal  straight  muscle. 
»?<,  The  pectineus  muscle.  49,  The  adductor  muscle.  50,  The  psoaa 


I  $6  KEY    TO    ANATOMICAL    OUTLINE    PLATES. 

muscle.  51,  The  tibialis  anticus  muscle.  52,  The  long  extensv>r  muscle 
of  the  great  toe.  53,  The  long  extensor  muscle  of  the  toes.  54,  Thf. 
anterior  peroneal  muscle.  55,  The  long  lateral  peroneal  muscle.  56, 57,  The 
gastrocnemii  muscles.  58,  The  long  flexor  muscle  of  the  great  toe. 
59,  The  short  extensor  muscles  of  the  toes.  60,  The  abductor  muscle  of 
the  great  toe. 

The  figures  and  letters  on  the  left  side  of  the  plate,  indicate  the  position 
of  important  fasciae,  that  cover  the  muscles  and  enclose  the  tendons. 


PLATE  IV. 

• 

A  BACK  VIEW  OF  THE  MUSCLES. 

Muscles  of  the  Head  and  Neck,  4,  The  sterno-mastoideus  muscle. 
5,  The  complexus  muscle.  6,  The  mylo-hyoideus  muscle.  7,  8,  The  oc- 
cipito-frontalis  muscle.  9,  The  masseter  muscle.  10,11,12,  The  anterior, 
middle,  and  posterior  aural  muscles.  13,  The  temporal  muscle. 

Muscles  of  the  Trunk.  1, 1,  The  trapezius  muscle.  2,  The  latissimus  dorsi 
muscle.  3,  The  rhomboideus  muscle.  4,  The  external  oblique  muscle. 

Muscles  of  the  Upper  Extremities.  5,  The  deltoid  muscle.  6,  7,  The 
infra-spinatus  muscle.  9,  The  triceps  extensor  muscle.  10,  The  internal 
brachial  muscle.  11,  The  long  supinator  muscle.  12,  The  external  radi- 
al muscle.  13,  The  second  external  radial  muscle.  14,  The  anconeus 
muscle.  15,  16,  The  extensor  digitorum  communis  muscle.  17,  The  ex- 
tensor carpi  ulnaris  muscle.  18,  The  flexor  carpi  ulnaris.  19,  20,  The 
extensor  ossis  metacarpi  pollicis  muscles.  21,  An  extensor  muscle  of  the 
thumb.  22,  28,  Interossii  muscles. 

Muscles  of  the  Lower  Extremities.  29,  The  gluteus  maximus  muscle. 
30,  The  gluteus  medius  muscle.  31,  The  biceps  flexor  cruris  muscle 
32,  The  semi-tendinosus  muscle.  33,  The  semi-membranosis  muscle. 
34,  The  gracilis  muscle.  35,  The  adductor  muscle.  36,  The  vastus  ex- 
ternus  muscle.  37,  The  sartorius  muscle.  38,  39,  The  gastrocnemii 
muscles.  40,  The  long  peroneal  muscle.  41,  The  external  peroneal  mus- 
cle. 42,  The  long  flexor  muscle  of  the  great  toe.  43,  The  long  extensor 
rn^iscle  of  the  toes.  44,  The  short  extensor  muscle  of  the  toes.  47,  The 
short  flexor  muscle  of  the  toes. 

The  figures  and  letters  on  the  left  side  of  the  plate,  indicate  the  position 
of  membranous  fasciee  which  envelop  the  muscles  and  tendons. 

PLATE  V. 
ORGANS  OF  THE  THORAX  AND  ABDOMEN. 

Fig.  1.  The  Mouth  and  Neck.  (A  Side  view.)  1,  The  upper  lip.  2,  Thi 
tower  lip.  3,  The  upper  jaw.  4,  The  lower  jaw.  5,  The  tongue.  6,  The 
hard  palate,  (roof  of  the  mouth.)  7,  The  parotid  gland.  8,  The  sub 


KEY    TO    ANATOMICAL    OUTLINE    PLATES.  187 

lingual  gland.     T,  The  larynx.     10,  The  pharynx.     11,  The  oesophagus 

12,  The  upper  portion  of  the  spinal  column.     C,  The  spinal  cord. 

The  Clout  and  its  Organs.  9,  9,  The  trachea.  R,  The  right  auricle 
of  the  heart.  L,  The  left  auricle.  13,  The  left  ventricle  of  the  neart. 
14,  The  right  ventricle.  15,  The  aorta.  16,  The  pulmonary  artery. 
17,  The  vena  cava  descendens.  18,  The  right  subclayian  vein.  19,  The 
left  subclavian  vein.  20,  The  right  jugular  vein.  21,  The  left  jugular 
vein.  22,  The  right  carotid  artery.  23,  The  left  carotid  artery.  24,  25, 
26,  The  upper,  middle,  and  lower  li  bes  of  the  right  lung.  27,  28,  The 
upper  and  lower  lobes  of  the  left  lung.  29,  29,  29,  The  diaphragm. 
P,  P,  P,  P,  The  pleura,  that  lines  the  cavity  of  the  chest  S,  S,  The  clavi- 
cles. O,  O,  O,  O,  The  ribs.  M,  M,  M,  M,  Muscles  of  the  chest.  40,  The 
thoracic  duct,  opening  into  the  left  subclavian  vein. 

The  Abdomen  and  its  Organs.  30,  The  stomach.  31,  32,  The  right  and 
left  lobe  of  the  liver.  F,  The  fissure  that  separates  the  two  lobes.  33,  The 
gall  bladder.  34,  34,  The  duodenum.  35,  The  ascending  colon.  36,  The 
transverse  colon.  37,  The  descending  colon.  38,  38,  38,  38,  The  small 
intestine.  39,  39,  The  walls  of  the  abdominal  cavity  turned  down.  41, 
The  spleen. 

Fig.  2.  The  Relation  of  the  Lacteals  and  Thoracic  Dttct.  1,  1,  A  section 
of  the  small  intestine.  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  2,  Mesenteric  glands,  through 
which  the  lacteals  from  the  intestine  pass.  3,  Several  lacteal  vessels 
entering  the  enlarged  portion  and  commencement  of  the  thoracic  duct. 
5,  5,  5,  The  thoracic  duct.  6,  The  thoracic  duct  opening  into  the  left  sub- 
clavian vein.  7,  (See  40,  Fig.  1.)  8,  The  right  subclavian  vein.  9,  The 
vena  cava  descendens.  10,  11,  11,  The  aorta.  12,  The  carotid  arteries. 

13,  13,  The  jugular  veins.     14,  The  vena  azagos.     15,  15,  The  spinal  col- 
umn.    16,  The  diaphragm. 

Fig.  3.  The  Relation  of  the  Larynx.  Trachea,  Bronchia,  and  Air-cells. 
1,  1,  1,  An  outline  of  the  right  lung.  2,  2,  2,  An  outline  of  the  left  lung. 
3,  The  larynx.  4,  The  trachea.  5,  The  right  bronchia..  6,  The  left  bron- 
chia. 7,  7,  7,  7,  Divisions  of  the  right  bronchia.  8,  8,  8,  8,  Divisions  of  the 
left  bronchia.  9,  9,  9,  9,  9,  9,  Air-cells. 

Fig.  4.     An  ideal  View  of  a  lateral  and  vertical  Section  of  the  Larynx. 

1,  1,  The  superior  vocal  cords,  (ligaments.)     2,  2,  The  inferior  vocal  cords 
3,  3,  The  glottis.    4,  4,  The  ventricles  of  the  larynx 

PLATE  VI. 
HEART,  ARTERIES,  AND  VEINS. 

Fig.  1.     The  Heart  and  large  Arteries.     1,  The  right  auricle  of  the  heart. 

2,  The  right  ventricle  of  the  heart.     3,  The  left  auricle.     4,  The  left  ven- 
tricle.    5,  The  pulmonary   artery.     6,  The   aorta.     7,  7,  The   descending 
aorta.     8,  The  arteria  innominata.     9,  The  left  carotid  artery.    10,  The  left 
subclavian  artery.     56,  The  right  subclavian  nrt.-rv. 


188  KEY    TO    ANATOMICAL    OUTLINE    PLATES. 

Arteries  of  the  Neck  and  Head.  15,  The  right  carotid  artery.  16,  The 
left  carotid  artery.  17,  The  right  temporal  artery.  50,  The  right  facial 
irtery.  54,  The  left  temporal  artery. 

Arteries  of  the  Upper  Extremities.  11,  11,  The  left  brachial  artery. 
12,  The  left  radial  artery.  13,  13,  The  right  brachial  artery.  14,  The 
right  radial  artery.  51,  The  right  ulnar  artery. 

Arteries  of  the  Lower  Extremities.  18,  The  left  iliac  artery.  19,  The  right 
iliac  artery.  20,  The  left  femoral  artery.  21,  The  right  femoral  artery. 
22,  The  peroneal  artery.  23,  The  left  anterior  tibial  artery.  24,  The  mus- 
cular artery.  25,  25,  The  right  and  left  arteria  profunda.  26,  The  right 
anterior  tibia!  artery.  27,  The  right  peroneal  artery. 

The  Veins  of  the  Neck  and  Head.  28,  The  vena  cava  descendens. 
29,  The  left  subclavian  vein.  30,  The  right  subclavian  vein.  31,  The 
right  jugular  vein.  32,  The  left  jugular  vein.  53,  The  right  temporA 
vein.  55,  The  left  temporal  vein.  49,  The  right  facial  vein. 

Veins  of  the  Upper  Extremities.  33,  The  left  brachial  vein.  34,  The  left 
radial  vein.  35,  The  right  brachial  vein.  36,  The  right  radial  vein. 
51,  The  right  ulnar  vein. 

Veins  of  the  Lower  Extremities.  37,  The  vena  cava  ascendens.  38,  The 
left  iliac  vein.  39.  The  right  iliac  vein.  40,  The  left  femoral  vein.  41,  The 
right  femoral  vein.  42,  The  left  anterior  tibial  vein.  43,  The  left  per 
oneal  vein.  44,  The  right  anterior  tibial  vein.  45,  The  right  peroneal 
vein.  46,  46,  The  profunda  veins.  47,  The  muscular  veins.  48,  48,  48, 
48,  48,  48,  Intercostal  arteries  and  veins. 

Fig.  2.  The  Relation  of  the  Cavities  of  the  Heart  to  the  large  Blood-vessels. 
1,  The  vena  cava  descendens.  2,  The  vena  cava  ascendens.  3,  The  right 
auricle  of  the  heart.  4,  The  opening  between  the  right  auricle  and  right 
ventricle.  5,  The  right  ventricle.  6,  The  tricuspid  valves.  7,  The  pul- 
monary artery.  8,  8,  The  branches  of  the  pulmonary  artery  that  pass  to 
the  right  and  left  lung.  9,  The  semilunar  valves  of  the  pulmonary  artery. 
10,  The  left  pulmonary  veins.  11,  The  right  pulmonary  veins.  12,  The 
left  auricle.  13,  The  opening  between  the  left  auricle  and  left  ventricle. 
14,  The  left  ventricle.  15,  The  mitral  valves.  16,  16,  The  aorta.  17,  The 
semilunar  valves  of  the  aorta.  18,  The  septum  between  the  right  and  left 
ventricle. 

Fig.  3.  An  ideal  View  of  the  Heart,  Arteries,  and  Veins.  A,  The  right 
auricle.  B,  The  right  ventricle.  C,  The  tricuspid  valves.  D,  The  open- 
ing between  the  right  auricle  and  right  ventricle.  E,  The  left  auricle. 
F,  The  left  ventricle.  G,  The  mitral  valves.  H,  The  opening  between 
the  left  auricle  and  left  ventricle.  I,  The  septum  between  the  right  and 
left  ventricle.  K,  The  pulmonary  artery.  L,  The  semilunar  valves  of  the 
pulmonary  artery.  M,  M,  The  right  pulmonary  artery.  N,  N,  The  left 
pulmonary  artery.  0,  O,  O,  O,  O,  O,  The  capillary  vessels  of  the  lungs 
P,  P,  P,  The  right  pulmonary  vein.  Q,  Q,  The  left  pulmonary  vein 
R,  R,  The  aorta.  S,  The  semilunar  valves  of  the  aorta.  T,  T,  A  branch 
of  the  aorta  to  the  upper  extremities.  U,  U,  U,  U,  A  branch  to  the  lower 
extremities.  V,  V,  V,  V,  V,  V,  The  capillary  vessels  at  the  extremity 


KEY    TO    ANATOMICAL    OUTLINE    PLATES.  189 

D/    the    branches  of   the  aorta.    W,   "W,    The    descending   vena    cava. 
X,  X,  X,  The  ascending  vena  cava. 

In  Figs.  1,  2,  3,  the  course  of  the  blood  through  the  circulatory  vessels 
is  indicated  by  arrows. 

PLATE  VII. 
THE  PULMONARY  CIRCULATION. 

Fig.  1.  1,  The  right  auricle  of  the  heart.  2,  The  left  auricle.  5>,  The 
right  ventricle  of  the  heart.  4,  The  left  ventricle.  5,  The  pulmonary 
artery.  6,  The  branch  of  the  pulmonary  artery  to  the  left  lung.  7,  The 
branch  of  the  pulmonary  artery  to  the  right  lung.  8,  8,  8,  8, 8,  8,  8,  8,  8,  8, 
Branches  of  the  pulmonary  artery  in  the  right  and  left  lung.  9, 9, 9,  9,  9, 9, 
Air-cells.  10,  10,  10,  10,  10,  10,  10,  Small  pulmonary  veins  in  the  right 
and  left  lung.  11,  The  left  pulmonary  vein.  12,  12,  The  right  pulmonary 
vein. 

Fig.  2.  An  ideal  View  of  the  Pulmonary  Circulation.  1,  1,  The  right 
lung.  2, 2,  The  left  lung.  3,  The  trachea.  4, 4, 4,  4, 4,  The  right  bronchia. 
5,  5,  5,  5,  5,  The  left  bronchia.  6,  6,  6,  6,  6,  6,  Air-cells,  with  arteries  and 
veins  passing  around  them.  7,  The  right  auricle  of  the  heart.  8,  The 
right  ventricle  of  the  heart.  9,  The  tricuspid  valves.  10,  The  pulmonary 
artery.  11,  11,  11,  11,  The  right  pulmonary  artery.  12,  12,  12,  12, 12,  The 
left  pulmonary  artery.  13,  13,  13,  13,  The  right  pulmonary  vein. 
14, 14,  14,  14,  The  left  pulmonary  vein.  15,  The  left  auricle.  16,  The 
left  ventricle.  17,  The  mitral  valves.  18,  The  septum  between  the  right 
and  left  ventricles. 

Fig.  3.  An  ideal  View  of  the  Capillaries.  1,  1,  A  branch  of  the  pul- 
monary artery.  2,  2,  A  branch  of  the  pulmonary  vein.  3,  3,  Capillary 
vessels  between  the  artery  and  vein. 

Fig.  4.  An  ideal  View  of  the  Relations  of  the  Bronchia,  Air-cells,  Pul- 
monary Arteries,  and  Veins.  1,  A  bronchial  tube.  2,  2,  2,  Air-cells. 
3,  A  branch  of  the  pulmonary  artery.  4,  A  branch  of  the  pulmonary  vein. 


PLATE  VUL 

THE  CEREBRUM,  CEREBELLUM,  SPINAL  CORD,  AND 
NERVES. 

I,  The  cerebrum.    2,  The  cerebellum.     3,  3,  The  spinal  cord.    4,  The 
brachial  plexus  of  nerves.     5,  The  lumbar  plexus  of  nerves.     6,  The'  sa- 
cral plexus  of  nerves.    7,   The  facial  nerve.      8,  17,  The  radial  nerve. 
9,  9,  16,  The  ulnar  nerve.     10,  The  median  nerve.     G,  The  circumflex 
nerve  of  the  shoulder. 

II,  11,  The  great  sciatic  nerve.     12,  The  external  popliteal,  or  peroneal 


l./O  KEY    TO    ANATOMICAL    OUTLINE    PLATKS. 

nerve.  13,  13,  The  posterior  tibial  nerve.  14,  The  external  tibial  nerve. 
15,  The  muscular  branch  of  the  external  peroneal  nerve.  18,  The  muscu- 
lar branch  of  the  sciatic  nerve.  P,  Q,  The  posterior  tibial  nerve. 

The   letters   and  other  figures   indicate   minor  nervous   filaments   dis- 
tributed to  the  various  muscles  and  the  skin. 


PLATE  IX. 

THE  SKLN. 

Fig.  1.  A  perspiratory  Tube  and  Gland.  1,  1,  The  contorted  portion  of 
the  tube  that  forms  the  gland.  2,  2,  Two  branches  which  unite  to  form 
the  main  duct  of  the  gland.  3,  3,  The  perspiratory  tube.  4,  The  cuticle. 
5,  Its  colored  portion.  6,  The  cutis  vera,  (true  skin.)  7,  7,  Fat  vesicles, 
in  which  the  gland  is  imbedded. 

Fig.  2.  A  Papilla  of  the  Skin.  1,  1,  Two  papillae,  formed  of  an  artery, 
vein,  and  nerve.  2,2,2,2,  Nerves  forming  a  loop  in  the  papilke.  3,3,  Ar- 
teries of  the  papillae.  4,  4,  Veins  of  the  papillae.  5,  5,  A  net-work  of 
arteries,  veins,  and  nerves.  6,  6,  Nerves  of  the  skin.  8,  8,  Arteries  of 
the  skin.  7,  7,  Veins  of  the  skin. 

Fig.  3.  A  Hair,  audits  Oil-Glands.  1,  1,  The  hair.  2,  2,  The  sheath 
of  the  hair.  3,  Oil-glands  that  surround  the  bulb  of  the  hair,  the  ducts  of 
which  open  into  the  sheath  of  the  hair,  (2,  2.) 

Fig.  4.  A  Section  of  tJie  Skin.  1,  1,  The  cuticle.  2,  2,  Its  colored  por- 
tion. 3,  3,  The  papillary  layer.  4,  4,  A  net-work  of  arteries,  veins,  and 
nerves,  upon  the  upper  surface  of  the  cutis  vera.  5,  5,  5,  5,  The  cutis 
vera,  (true  skin.)  6,  6,  6,  Hairs  that  originate  in  the  cutis  vera.  7,  7,  7,  Oil- 
glands,  the  ducts  of  which  connect  with  the  sheath  of  the  hair.  8,  8,  8  8, 
8,  8,  8,  8,  Perspiratory  glands  and  their  ducts.  9,  9,  9,  9,  9,  Nerves  of  the 
skin.  10,  10,  10,  10,  10,  Arteries  of  the  skin.  11,  11,  11,  11,  11,  Veins  of 
the  skin.  12,  12,  12,  12,  Papillae,  or  ridges  of  the  skin. 


PLATE  X. 
AN  ANTERO-POSTERIOR  SECTION  OF  THE  EYE. 

Fig.  1.  1,  1,  The  sclerotic  coat.  2,  2,  The  cornea.  3,  3,  The  choroid 
coat.  4,  4,  The  retina.  5,  5,  The  iris.  6, 6,  The  posterior  chamber  of 
the 'eye  that  contains  the  aqueous  humor.  7,7,  The  anterior  chamber. 
8,  8,  The  pupil.  9,  The  crystalline  humor.  10,  10,  The  vitreous  humor. 
11,  The  optic  nerve.  12,  A  representation  of  a  pen.  13,  An  inverted 
image  of  the  pen  (12)  on  the  ret  ma.  14,  14,  A  canal  surrounding  the 
crystalline  humor.  15,  15,  The  bevelled  junction  of  the  cornea  and  scle- 


KEY    TO    ANATOMICAL    OUTLINE    PLATES.  191 

rotic  coats.     A,  a  perpendicular  ray  of  light  from  the  pen.     B,  B,  oblique 
rays,  that  are  refracted  in  passing  through  the  humors  of  the  eye. 

Fig.  2.  A  View  ofttie  External,  Middle ;  and  Internal  Ear.  1,1.  The  ex- 
ternal ear.  2,  The  meatus  auditorius  externus,  (the  tube  that  connects 
with  the  middle  ear.)  3,  The  membrana  tympani,  (drum  of  the  ear.) 
8,  8,  The  tympanum,  (middle  ear.)  4,  The  malleus.  5,  The  incus. 
6,  The  orbicularis.  7,  The  stapes,  (stirrup-bone,)  that  connects  with  the 
vestibule  of  the  internal  ear.  9,  9,  (4,  5,  6,  7,  The  small  bones  of  the  mid- 
dle ear,)  10,  11,  12,  The  semicircular  canals.  13,  13,  The  cochlea. 
14,  The  auditory  nerve.  15,  The  division  of  the  auditory  nerve  to  the 
semicircular  can -Us.  16,  The  division  to  the  cochlea.  17,  17i  The 
Eustachian  tube.  18,  The  chorda  tympani  nerve.  19,  The  seventh  pair 
(tHcitd)  nprve.  20,  The  styloid  process  of  the  temporal  bone.  21,  21, 
21,  21.  21,  Tut  pslxous  or  hard  portion  of  the  temporal  bone,  in  which 
ihe  parts  of  the  middle  and  internal  ear  are  situated. 


14  DAY  USE 

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